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  • Toward a Sector-Wide AI Tutor R&D Program –

    Toward a Sector-Wide AI Tutor R&D Program –

    EdTech seems to go through perpetual cycles of infatuation and disappointment with some new version of a personalized one-on-one tutor available to every learner everywhere. The recent strides in generative AI give me hope that the goal may finally be within reach this time. That said, I see the same sloppiness that marred so many EdTech infatuation moments. The concrete is being poured on educational applications that use a very powerful yet inherently unpredictable technology in education. We will build on a faulty foundation if we get it wrong now.

    I’ve seen this happen countless times before, both with individual applications and with entire application categories. For example, one reason we don’t get a lot of good data from publisher courseware and homework platforms is that many of them were simply not designed with learning analytics in mind. As hard as that is to believe, the last question we seem to ask when building a new EdTech application is “How will we know if it works?” Having failed to consider that question when building the early versions of their applications, publishers have had a difficult time solving for it later.

    In this post, I propose a programmatic, sector-wide approach to the challenge of building a solid foundation for AI tutors, balancing needs for speed, scalability, and safety.

    The temptation

    Before we get to the details, it’s worth considering why the idea of an AI tutor can be so alluring. I have always believed that education is primal. It’s hard-wired into humans. Not just learning but teaching. Our species should have been called homo docens. In a recent keynote on AI and durable skills, I argued that our tendency to teach and learn from each other through communications and transportation technologies formed the engine of human civilization’s advancement. That’s why so many of us have a memory of a great teacher who had a huge impact on our lives. It’s why the best longitudinal study we have, conducted by Gallup and Purdue University, provides empirical evidence that having one college professor who made us excited about learning can improve our lives across a wide range of outcomes, from economic prosperity to physical and mental health to our social lives. And it’s probably why the Khans’ video gives me chills:

    Check your own emotions right now. Did you have a visceral reaction to the video? I did.

    Unfortunately, one small demonstration does not prove we have reached the goal. The Khanmingo AI tutor pilot has uncovered a number of problems, including factual errors like incorrect math and flawed tutoring. (Kudos to Khan Academy for being open about their state of progress by the way.)

    We have not yet achieved that magical robot tutor. How do we get there? And how will we know that we’ve arrived?

    Start with data scientists, but don’t stop there

    As I read some of the early literature, I see an all-too-familiar pattern: technologists build the platforms, data scientists decide which data are important to capture, and they consult learning designers and researchers. However, all too often, the research design clearly originates from a technologist’s perspective, showing relatively little knowledge of detailed learning science methods or findings. A good example of this mindset’s strengths and weaknesses is Google’s recent paper, “Towards Responsible Development of Generative AI for Education: An Evaluation-Driven Approach“. It reads like a paper largely concieved by technologists who work on improving generative AI and sharpened up by educational research specialists they consulted with after they already had the research project largely defined.

    The paper proposes evaluation rubrics for five dimensions of generative AI tutors:

    • Clarity and Accuracy of Responses: This dimension evaluates how well the AI tutor delivers clear, correct, and understandable responses. The focus is on ensuring that the information provided by the AI is accurate and easy for students to comprehend. High clarity and accuracy are critical for effective learning and avoiding the spread of misinformation.
    • Contextual Relevance and Adaptivity: This dimension assesses the AI’s ability to provide responses that are contextually appropriate and adapt to the specific needs of each student. It includes the AI’s capability to tailor its guidance based on the student’s current understanding and the specific learning context. Adaptive learning helps in personalizing the educational experience, making it more relevant and engaging for each learner.
    • Engagement and Motivation: This dimension measures how effectively the AI tutor can engage and motivate students. It looks at the AI’s ability to maintain students’ interest and encourage their participation in the learning process. Engaging and motivating students is essential for sustained learning and for fostering a positive educational environment.
    • Error Handling and Feedback Quality: This dimension evaluates how well the AI handles errors and provides feedback. It examines the AI’s ability to recognize when a student makes a mistake and to offer constructive feedback that helps the student understand and learn from their errors. High-quality error handling and feedback are crucial for effective learning, as they guide students towards the correct understanding and improvement.
    • Ethical Considerations and Bias Mitigation: This dimension focuses on the ethical implications of using AI in education and the measures taken to mitigate bias. It includes evaluating how the AI handles sensitive topics, ensures fairness, and respects student privacy. Addressing ethical considerations and mitigating bias are vital to ensure that the AI supports equitable learning opportunities for all students.

    Of these, the paper provides clear rubrics for the first four and is a little less concrete on the fifth. Notice, though, that most of these are similar dimensions that generative AI companies use to evaluate their products generically. That’s not bad. On the contrary, establishing standardized, education-specific rubrics with high inter-rater reliability across these five dimensions is the first component of the programmatic, sector-wide approach to AI tutors that we need. Notice these are all qualitative assessments. That’s not bad but, for example, we do have quantitative data available on error handling in the form of feedback and hints (which I’ll delve into momentarily).

    That said, the paper lacks many critical research components, particularly regarding the LearnLM-Tutor software the researchers were testing. Let’s start with the authors not providing outcomes data anywhere in the 50-page paper. Did LearnLM-Tutor improve student outcomes? Make them worse? Have no effect? Work better in some contexts than others? We don’t know.

    We also don’t know how LearnLM-Tutor incorporates learning science. For example, on the question of cognitive load, the authors write,

    We designed LearnLM Tutor to manage cognitive load by breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable components and providing scaffolded support through hints and feedback. The goal is to maintain an optimal balance between intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load.

    Towards Responsible Development ofGenerative AI for Education: An Evaluation-Driven Approach

    How, specifically, did they do this? What measures did they take? What relevant behaviors were they able to elicit from their LLM-based tutor? How are those behaviors grounded in specific research findings about cognitive load? How closely do they reproduce the principals that produced the research findings they’re drawing from? And did it work?

    We don’t know.

    The authors are also vague about Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) research. They write,

    Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have shown that intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) can significantly improve student learning outcomes. For example, Kulik and Fletcher’s meta-analytic review demonstrates that ITS can lead to substantial improvements in learning compared to traditional instructional methods.

    Towards Responsible Development ofGenerative AI for Education: An Evaluation-Driven Approach

    That body of research was conducted over a relatively small number of ITS implementations because a relatively small number of these systems exist and have published research behind them. Further, the research often cites specific characteristics of these tutoring systems that lead to positive outcomes, with supporting data. Which of these characteristics does LearnLM Tutor support? Why do we have reason to believe that Google’s system will achieve the same results?

    We don’t know.

    I’m being a little unfair to the authors by critiquing the paper for what it isn’t about. Its qualitative, AI-aligned assessments are real contributions. They are necessary for a programmatic, sector-wide approach to AI tutor development. They simply are not sufficient.

    ITS data sets for fine-tuning

    ITS research is a good place to start if we’re looking to anchor our AI tutor improvement and testing program in solid research with data sets and experimental protocols that we can re-use and adapt. The first step is to explore how we can utilize the existing body of work to improve AI tutors today. The end goal is to develop standards for integrating the ongoing ITS research (and other data-backed research streams) into continuous improvement of AI tutors.

    One key short-term opportunity is hints and feedback. If, for the moment, we stick with the notion of a “tutor” as software engaging in adaptive, turn-based coaching of students on solving homework problems, then hints and feedback are core to the tutor’s function. ITS research has produced high-quality, publicly available data sets with good findings on these elements. The sector should construct, test, and refine an LLM fine-tuning data set on hints and feedback. This work must include developing standards for data preprocessing, quality assurance, and ethical use. These are non-trivial but achievable goals.

    The hints and feedback work could form a beachhead. It would help us identify gaps in existing research, challenges in using ITS data this way, and the effectiveness of fine-tuning. For example, I’d be interested in seeing whether the experimental designs used in hints and feedback ITS research papers could be replicated with an LLM that has been fine-tuned using the research data. In the process, we want to adopt and standardize protocols for preserving student privacy, protecting author rights, and other concerns that are generally taken into account in high-quality IRB-approved studies. These practices should be baked into the technology itself when possible and supported by evaluation rubrics when it is not.

    While this foundational work is being undertaken, the ITS research community could review its other findings and data sets to see which additional research data sets could be harnessed to improve LLM tutors and develop a research agenda that strengthens the bridge being built between that research and LLM tutoring.

    The larger limitations of this approach will likely spring the uneven and relatively sparse coverage of course subjects, designs, and student populations. We can learn a lot about developing a strategy for uses these sorts of data from ITS research. But to achieve the breadth and depth of data required, we’ll need to augment this body of work with another approach that can scale quickly.

    Expanding data sets through interoperability

    Hints and feedback are great examples of a massive missed opportunity cost. Virtually all LMSs, courseware, and homework platforms support feedback. Many also support hints. Combined, these systems represent a massive opportunity to gather data about usage and effectiveness of hints and feedback across a wide range of subjects and contexts. We already know how the relevant data need to be represented for research purposes because we have examples from ITS implementations. Note that these data include both design elements—like the assessment question, the hints, the feedback, and annotations about the pedagogical intent—and student performance when they use the hints and feedback. So if, for example, we were looking at 1EdTech standards, we would need to expand both Common Cartridge and Caliper standards to incorporate these elements.

    This approach offers several benefits. First, we would gain access to massive cross-platform data sets that could be used to fine-tune AI models. Second, these standards would enable scaled platforms like LMSs to support proven metheds for testing the quality of hints and feedback elements. Doing so would provide benefit to students using today’s platforms while enabling improvement of the training data sets for AI tutors. The data would be extremely messy, especially at first. But the interoperability would enable a virtuous cycle of continuous improvement.

    The influence of interoperability standards on shaping EdTech is often underestimated and misunderstood. !EdTech was first created when publishers realized they needed a way to get their content into new teaching systems that were then called Instructional Management Systems (IMS). Common Cartridge was the first standard created by the organization now known as 1EdTech. Later, Common Cartridge export made migration from one LMS to another much more feasible, thus aiding in breaking the product category out of what was then a virtual monopoly. And I would guess that perhaps 30% or more of the start-ups at the annual ASU+GSV conference would not exist if they could not integrate with the LMS via the Learning Tool Interoperability (LTI) standard. Interoperability is a vector for accelerating change. Creating interoperabiltiy around hints and feedback—including both the importing of them into learning systems and passing student performance impact data—could accelerate the adoption of effective interactive tutoring responses, whether they are delivered by AI or more traditional means.

    Again, hints and feedback are the beachhead, not the end game. Ultimately, we want to capture high-quality training data across a broad range of contexts on the full spectrum of pedagogical approaches.

    Capturing learning design

    If we widen the view beyond the narrow goal of good turn-taking tutorial responses, we really want our AI to understand the full scope of pedagogical intent and which pedagogical moves have the desired effect (to the degree the latter is measurable). Another simple example of a construct we often want to capture in relation to the full design is the learning objective. ChatGPT has a reasonably good native understanding of learning objectives, how to craft them, and how they relate to gross elements of a learning design like assessments. It could improve significantly if it were trained on annotated data. Further, developing annotations for a broad spectrum of course design elements could improve its tutoring output substantially. For example, well-designed incorrect answers to questions (or “distractors”) often test for misconceptions regarding a learning objective. If distractors in a training set were specifically tagged as such, the AI could better learn to identify and probe for misconceptions. This is a subtle and difficult skill even for human experts but it is also a critical capability for a tutor (whether human or otherwise).

    This is one of several reasons why I believe focusing effort on developing AI learning design assistants supporting current-generation learning platforms is advantageous. We can capture a rich array of learning design moves at design time. Some of these we already know how to capture through decades of ITS design. Others are almost completely dark. We have very little data on design intent and even less on the impact of specific design elements on achieving the intended learning goals. I’m in the very early stages of exploring this problem now. Despite having decades of experience in the field, I am astonished at the variability in learning design approaches, much of which is motivated and little of which is tested (or even known within individual institutions).

    On the other side, at-scale platforms like LMSs have implemented many features in common that are not captured in today’s interoperability standards. For example, every LMS I know of implements learning objectives and has some means of linking them to activities. Implementation details may vary. But we are nowhere close to capturing even the least-common-denominator functionality. Importantly, many of these functions are not widely used because of the labor involved. While LMSs can link learning objectives to learning activities, many course builders don’t do it. If an AI could help capture these learning design relationships, and if it could export content to a learning platform in a standard format that preserves those elements, we would have the foundations for more useful learning analytics, including learning design efficacy analytics. Those analytics, in turn, could drive improvement of the course designs, creating a virtuous cycle. These data could then be exported for model training (with proper privacy controls and author permissions, of course). Meanwhile, less common features such as flagging a distractor as testing for a misconception could be included as optional elements, creating positive pressure to improve both the quality of the learning experiences delivered in current-generation systems and the quality of the data sets for training AI.

    Working at design time also puts a human in the loop. Let’s say our workflow follows these steps:

    1. The AI is prompted to conduct turn-taking design interviews of human experts, following a protocol intended to capture all the important design elements.
    2. The AI generates a draft of the learning design. Behind the scenes, the design elements are both shaped by and associated with the metadata schemas from the interoperability standards.
    3. The human experts edit the design. These edits are captured, along with annotations regarding the reasons for the edits. (Think Word or Google Docs with comments.) This becomes one data set that can be used to further fine-tune the model, either generally or for specific populations and contexts.
    4. The designs are exported using the interoperability standards into production learning platforms. The complementary learning efficacy analytics standards provide telemetry on the student behavior and performance within a given design. This becomes another data set that could potentially be used for improving the model.
    5. The human learning designers improve the course designs based on the standards-enabled telemetry. They test the revised course designs for efficacy. This becomes yet another potential data set. Given this final set in the chain, we can look at designer input into the model, the model’s output, the changes human designers made, and improved iterations of the original design—all either aggregated across populations and contexts or focused on a specific population and context.

    This can be accomplished using the learning platforms that exist today, at scale. Humans would always supervise and revise the content before it reaches the students, and humans would decide which data they would share under what conditions for the purposes of model tuning. The use of the data and the pace of movement toward student-facing AI become policy-driven decisions rather than technology-driven. At each of the steps above, humans make decisions. The process allows for control and visibility regarding the plethora of ethical challenges that face integrating AI into education. Among other things, this workflow creates a policy laboratory.

    This approach doesn’t rule out simultaneously testing and using student-facing AI immediately. Again, that becomes a question of policy.

    Conclusion

    My intention here has been to outline a suite of “shovel-ready” initiatives that could be implemented realitvely quickly at scale. It is not comprehensive; nor does it attempt to even touch the rich range of critical research projects that are more investigational. On the contrary, the approach I outline here should open up a lot of new territory for both research and implementation while ensuring the concrete already being poured results in a safe, reliable, science- and policy-driven foundation.

    We can’t just sit by and let AI happen to us and our students. Nor can we let technologists and corporations become the primary drivers of the direction we take. While I’ve seen many policy white papers and AI ethics rubrics being produced, our approach to understanding the potential and mitigating the risks of EdTech AI in general and EdTech tutors in particular is moving at a snail’s pace relative to product development and implementation. We have to implement a broad, coordinated response.

    Now.

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  • The essential PLUS for returning to learning at Liverpool by Sarah Hanson – ALL @ Liverpool Blog

    The essential PLUS for returning to learning at Liverpool by Sarah Hanson – ALL @ Liverpool Blog

    If you are a mature student, returner to learning or someone who has experienced a disrupted education, you may be anxious about the support available for anyone not familiar with higher education and its challenges.  Starting your higher education journey is one of the most exciting times of your life, but we realise you might have some concerns as well. Whatever they might be, you don’t need to worry as the University of Liverpool offers lots of support.

    Our Student Services team, who offer a huge range of services, including mental health support like counselling, a Mental Health Advisory Service and wellbeing support including self-help guides, workshops and events. They also provide financial advice, including guidance on managing the rising cost of living and support for disabled students through initiatives like Disability Coaches, a peer support service of trained students with lived experience of disability and accessing disability support. Disability Coaches can help with initial enquiries, support plans, obtaining medical evidence and Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA).

    The Liverpool Guild of Students offer free and confidential advice to all students about the options available to you, covering academic, housing, wellbeing issues and more. Through the Guild you can  access a huge range of Societies, providing a brilliant opportunity to make new friends through shared interests. They also provide schemes like Give It A Go and lots of volunteering programmes, giving you the chance to enhance your student experience.

    From September 2024, Go Higher students will be able to access Liverpool Plus, a brand new post-entry support programme. Including an Enhanced Welcome package, 1-2-1 support with your transition into first year, bespoke events with University services like Global Opportunities and Libraries, and priority access to schemes like the Liverpool Advocate programme.

    With Liverpool Plus, we’ll provide the support you need to make the most out of your time at University

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  • How to Implement Diagnostic Assessment Examples

    How to Implement Diagnostic Assessment Examples

    Diagnostic assessment examples can help ground the concepts of diagnostic assessment in education. Plus, these examples can be an effective tool in gauging student progress and comprehension of course concepts. 

    What is Diagnostic Assessment in Education?

    An essential part of course planning for instructors to consider is how to gauge student understanding of course concepts. At the beginning of each academic term, it’s important to consider the upcoming curriculum, and how to best assess students.

    Diagnostic assessment typically takes place at the start of a semester to evaluate a student’s current level of knowledge and skills and their strengths and weaknesses on a particular topic.

    Similar to ipsative assessments, where professors examine students’ prior work in order to assess their current knowledge and abilities, diagnostic assessments are a type of “assessment as learning.” This is distinct from “assessments of learning” or “assessments for learning.”

    Distinction Between Different Types of Assessments

    Assessment for learning, also known as formative assessments, make use of information about student progress to improve and support student learning and guide instructional strategies. They are generally instructor-driven but are for student and instructor use. Assessments for learning can occur throughout the teaching and learning process, using a variety of platforms and tools. They engage instructors in providing differentiated instruction and provide feedback to students to enhance their learning.

    Assessment as learning (formative assessment) involves active student reflection on learning, monitoring of their own progress by supporting students to critically analyze and evaluate their own learning. Contrarily, they are student-driven and occur throughout the learning process. 

    Assessment of learning (summative assessment) involves evidence of student learning to make judgments about student progress. They provide instructors with the opportunity to report evidence of meeting course objectives and typically occur at the end of a learning cycle using a variety of tools. The evaluation compares assessment information against criteria based on curriculum outcomes for the purpose of communicating to students about student progress and making informed decisions about the teaching and learning process.

    What are Diagnostic Assessments Used For?

    Students may write examples of diagnostic assessments to help professors gain insight into their existing awareness and capabilities both preceding and following instruction. As such, a diagnostic evaluation can be either:

    • A pre-course diagnostic assessment
    • A post-course diagnostic assessment

    Upon completion of a post-course diagnostic assessment, a professor can compare it against the student’s pre-course diagnostic assessment for that same course and semester in order to identify possible improvements in various specific areas. Professors can then use this information to adjust and adapt their curricula to better meet the needs of future students.

    Professors can utilize diagnostic assessment in education to plan individualized learning experiences for each student that provide both efficient and meaningful instruction.

    Examples of Diagnostic Assessment Tools and Technologies

    There are many different educational tools and technologies that enable professors and students to get instant results from learning, including Top Hat, Socrative, Kahoot, Quizziz, Mentimeter and Quizlet. Within each of these tools and technologies are several different examples of diagnostic assessments you can apply to various disciplines.

    Diagnostic Assessment Examples

    Diagnostic assessments can be conducted in many different ways, including as sets of written questions, such as in short answer or multiple choice form, as well as reflection exercises, long answer questions and creative projects.

    In courses containing group work, useful types of diagnostic assessments may include self-assessments in which group members each rate themselves based on various guidelines. The group then collects specific samples of each member’s prior work to understand the member’s mindset that led that member to give him or herself that rating.

    Different types of diagnostic assessments include:

    • Anticipation guides
    • Conference/interview
    • Formal assessment
    • Gap-closing
    • Graffiti walls
    • Journals
    • KWL
    • Mind maps
    • Parallel activity
    • Performance tasks
    • Posters
    • Quiz/test
    • Student surveys
    • Word splash

    Below, we share examples of how diagnostic assessments can be implemented in different disciplines, as well as easy-to-use tools that streamline the assessment design process for instructors.

    Diagnostic Assessment Examples for Physics

    In physics courses, instructors issue a set of conceptual questions to students at the start of the semester in order to assess the students’ current understanding of the fundamentals of physics.

    In certain educational disciplines, standardized diagnostic assessment examples have been developed that instructors can use for any course within that discipline. In physics, one of the most commonly used examples of diagnostic assessment is the Force Concept Inventory, which contains question sets about concepts, like gravity, velocity, mass and force, which are typically taught in a basic first-semester Newtonian physics course.

    Tools for Diagnostic Assessments in Physics

    Physics instructors can use Top Hat’s Polls and Quizzes feature to design diagnostic evaluations that engage students effectively. Use polls to demonstrate student understanding and see which course concepts may need further review. Frequent quizzes can be used to help students challenge themselves.

    Top Hat’s surveys and polls tools include checkpoints to help break lectures up into more manageable chunks, prompt discussions and motivate students to apply what they learn. Top Hat’s in-class polls and quizzes are multimedia-rich, helping professors engage students fully in the learning and assessment process. Examples of diagnostic assessment in education using these tools include click-on-target, word answer and word matching.

    Diagnostic Assessment Examples for Psychology

    The professor may conduct a survey in order to evaluate assumptions students currently hold about concepts like the nature of the mind versus human behavior.

    In psychology or sociology courses dealing with controversial or sensitive topics, instructors may conduct student surveys to allow learners to pose questions or potentially controversial viewpoints anonymously, allowing for more open classroom discussions and more thorough understandings of preconceived notions students might hold. 

    Examples of Diagnostic Assessment in Psychology Tools

    Socrative is a quiz and assessment website that lets instructors design interactive quizzes particularly suitable for complex topics in psychology, like bio-psychology, criminological psychology, statistics and research methods.

    D2L lets instructors create several types of diagnostic assessments for psychology, including quizzes, surveys and self-assessments.

    Diagnostic Assessment Examples for Creative and Fine Arts

    Instructors can also use pre-assessment and self-assessment tests to help better direct their effort to inspire their students to engage with class material by seeing what students already comprehend about the complexities of the creative process. They can also collect initial portfolios to judge fine-arts students’ artistic abilities while simultaneously conveying the course objectives.

    Examples of Diagnostic Assessment in Education in Creative Arts and Fine Arts Tools

    Besides allowing professors to create customized short-form quizzes, Canvas Quizzes also contains a special “Assignments” feature that lets students upload a file for assessment. This can include a piece of creative written, illustrated or even audio/visual material. That flexibility of media allows professors to examine a broader range of skills and competencies than can be assessed through simple question and answer assessments alone.

    Diagnostic Assessment Examples for STEM courses

    More than other subjects, math can create a particularly large amount of anxiety in students who struggle with the subject, yet it can be significantly more difficult for instructors to target math interventions for students. If math anxiety and issues with math aren’t properly identified and targeted soon enough, however, they could easily escalate into much more deeply-rooted learning problems even more challenging for students to overcome.

    Diagnostic assessments help professors gauge students’ current level of competency in complex problem-solving in a number of prerequisite areas before beginning to teach them concepts intended to build upon that knowledge. This may include basic algebraic manipulations, cell cycles, solving equations and chemical equations. By implementing data-driven approaches, professors can specifically examine how students think about math and what strategies and skills they bring with them to approach a math problem.

    An effective diagnostic assessment for math typically examines only one skill or set of skills at a time. That way, professors can more easily identify areas and concepts where students may be in need of further review.

    Tools for Diagnostic Assessments in STEM courses

    Top Hat offers a suite of secure tests and exam features that allow instructors to create diagnostic assessments for both in-person and online learning settings with equal ease and efficiency. Whether remote and proctored diagnostic assessment for math or on-premise and open book diagnostic assessment for math, Top Hat’s secure tests and exams feature lets you choose from 14 different question types or access the Top Hat Catalog and select from a variety of pre-made test banks for mathematics diagnostic assessment.

    For online testing, you can verify identities and devices, monitor activity and receive reports flagging irregular behavior. You can create, deploy and receive exams all in one place and have the exams auto-graded. Helping make mathematics diagnostic assessment easier, you can also customize question types and assignment settings and you can let students upload mathematics diagnostic assessment projects as PDF files, spreadsheets and slide presentations.

    Key Examples of Diagnostic Assessments

    Unit Pretests

    Unit pretests are a type of diagnostic evaluation tool that does not involve students receiving any grades. Instead, unit pretests are a diagnostic test in education example of how to determine a student’s awareness of a certain unit or module of learning within a larger course before proceeding to learn it. This type of diagnostic test in education example may include multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank questions, as opposed to those of a more open-ended nature. For best use of these examples of a diagnostic test in education, unit pretests are most effective when concentrated on the core skill or concept for students to understand rather than the finer minutiae of the subject matter.

    Exit Tickets

    Exit tickets are a straightforward example of how to most effectively gauge student understanding after teaching a lesson, when you’re looking to see how effectively your students have met the objectives for that lesson or unit.

    Instructors ask students a simple question relating to a key concept taught in the lesson they’ve just concluded. Students jot down their answers on a “ticket” they deliver to the instructor upon their “exit” from the classroom. This allows instructors to adapt and adjust their curriculum for the following lesson or semester to align actual exit ticket results more closely with desired outcomes.

    Conclusion

    Diagnostic assessment examples like these provide instructors insights that help them to better create curricula customized to their students’ current level of knowledge, skills, strengths and weaknesses and, thereby, to better aid their students in achieving the objectives of the course. Likewise, professors can apply examples of diagnostic assessment in education like these after teaching a lesson or course in order to determine how well the objectives for that lesson or course were met and, based on that information, better strategize and adapt the curriculum for the next lesson or course.

    As these diagnostic assessment examples show, diagnostic evaluations are generally informal and simple to use. They typically require no high-level training to create and don’t require following any standardized protocol. Instructors can alter or more finely tune their assessment methods any time they wish. Instructors can share what they discover through the various types of diagnostic assessments they use with their peers quickly and easily. These examples of diagnostic tests in education and others like them work for any discipline and, most importantly, once applied with the right tools and technologies, diagnostic assessments in education show fast and efficient results.

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  • 9 Pedagogical Approaches for Higher Ed Explained [Plus: 40+ Free Strategies to Implement in Your Classroom]

    9 Pedagogical Approaches for Higher Ed Explained [Plus: 40+ Free Strategies to Implement in Your Classroom]

    This article will provide you with an understanding of what ‘pedagogy’ is, why it’s important for every classroom and how pedagogy has been evolving to take 21st-century skills and learning into account.

    You’ll learn about the different aspects of pedagogy, as well as some common pedagogical knowledge and approaches. Examples for each will provide greater insight into how you can apply different pedagogical teaching styles to your own classroom.

    With tips on creating your own pedagogy, including taking into account how digital technology and online and collaborative work are changing teaching, you’ll understand why and how having a clear and concise pedagogy can support your curriculum. 

    There are countless pedagogies that can work for your course. Download our free guide, which highlights and explains 9 different pedagogical approaches and how they can be used to keep your students motivated and engaged.

    Table of Contents

    1.0. What is pedagogy?

    1.1. Why is pedagogy important?

    1.2. How do you say ‘pedagogy’?

    2.0. Different types of pedagogy

    2.1. What is constructivist pedagogy?

    2.2. What is inquiry-based learning?

    2.3. What is the Socratic method?

    2.4. What is problem-based learning

    2.5. What is collaborative learning?

    2.6. What is integrative pedagogy?

    2.7. What is reflective pedagogy?

    2.8. What is critical pedagogy?

    2.9. What is culturally responsive teaching?

    3.0. Creating your own pedagogy

    3.1. How can pedagogy support your curriculum?

    3.2. How does pedagogy impact the learner?

    4.0. How is pedagogy changing?

    4.1. Online learning

    4.2. Personalizing pedagogies

    5.0. Conclusion

    Pedagogy is often confused with curriculum. The definition of pedagogy refers to how we teach—the theory and practice of educating. Curriculum refers to the material being taught. Pedagogy, meaning the relationship between learning techniques and culture, is determined based on an educator’s beliefs about how learning takes place. Pedagogy requires meaningful classroom interactions between educators and learners. The goal is to help students build on prior learning and develop skills and attitudes. For educators, the aim is to present the curriculum in a way that is relevant to student needs.

    Shaped by the educator’s own experiences, pedagogy must take into consideration the context in which learning takes place, and with whom. It isn’t about the materials used, but the process and the strategy adopted to lead to the achievement of meaningful cognitive learning.

    In a literal sense, the word pedagogy stems from the Greek word that effectively means “the art of teaching children.” More specifically, agogos means leader in Greek, and pedagogue refers to the teacher. Paidagogos were slaves tasked with taking boys to school and back, teaching them manners and tutoring them.

    Pedagogy vs. Andragogy

    Pedagogy is the teaching of children or dependent personalities. This means that it is up to the instructor to determine how, what and when course concepts are learned. Andragogy is the facilitation of learning for adults, who are self-directed learners. Adults are primarily driven by intrinsic motivation and can solve complex problems relying on past experiences. This must be taken into account in order to best support them in retaining new ideas, learning new ways of problem-solving, and strengthening independent thinking.

    1.1. Why is pedagogy important?

    Having a well-thought-out pedagogy can improve the quality of your teaching and the way students learn, helping them gain a deeper grasp of fundamental material. Being mindful of the way you teach can help you better understand how to help students achieve deeper learning. And it can, in turn, impact student perception, resulting in cooperative learning environments. The proper pedagogical approach helps students move beyond simple forms of thinking as defined in the Bloom’s taxonomy pyramid, like basic memorization and comprehension, to complex learning processes like analysis, evaluation, and creation. Students can leverage their preferred learning styles with a teaching process that supports them, and the way they like to learn.

    1.2. How do you say ‘pedagogy’?

    Pedagogy is pronounced differently in various countries. The International Phonetic Alphabet pronunciation is ˈpɛdəˌɡoʊdʒi/ /ˈpɛdəˌɡɑdʒi/. In both the U.K. and U.S., it’s often pronounced “ped-a-gaug-gee” (as in “geese”) though some use the “j” sound and pronounce it “paidag-o-jee” (as in the seventh letter of the alphabet, “g”.)

    Others, particularly in the U.K., say “pe-de-gaw-jee,” with more of an “ugh” sound in the middle, and replace the “go” sound with “gaw.” The Merriam-Webster dictionary suggests it should be “pe-de-go-je” (or ga).

    2. Pedagogical strategies

    There are countless pedagogies that can help you engage students. By implementing activities from different pedagogical techniques in your classroom, you’ll ensure students can tackle learning in a way that best meets their needs. Here, we outline nine pedagogical approaches that help students develop higher-order thinking skills and provide a more nuanced understanding of how their learnings fit into the world around them.

    2.1. What is constructivist pedagogy?

    Constructivist teaching strategies help students understand the meaning of their learning materials, instead of just passively ingesting content. Rather than focusing on the subject or lesson being taught, educators are encouraged to focus on how the student learns. 

    An example of a constructivist pedagogical practice:

    KWL(H) Charts are a great way to get an overview of student progress throughout the term. After finishing a unit or series of lessons, have learners fill out a chart with the following fields: What we know, What we want to know, What we have learned, How we know it.

    2.2. What is inquiry-based learning?

    Inquiry-based learning encourages students to ask questions and complete research while learning various concepts. The pedagogy focuses on helping learners acquire the skills necessary to develop their own ideas, as well as question themselves and group members in a constructive way. The four steps of inquiry-based learning are:

    • Developing problem statements that require students to pitch their question using a constructed response, further inquiry and citation.
    • Researching the topic using time in class where the instructor can guide students in their learnings
    • Presenting what they’ve learned to their peers or to a small group
    • Asking students to reflect on what worked about the process and what didn’t. Students focus on how they learned in addition to what they learned, to activate metacognition skills (or thinking about thinking).

    An example of inquiry-based learning: One way to incorporate inquiry-based learning in your classroom is through oral history projects. Ask students to research the personal histories of an individual of their choice, conduct interviews with the person (if possible) and create a presentation that includes artifacts, a feature article, a personal memoir and a photograph.

    2.3. What is the Socratic method?

    The Socratic method is a traditional pedagogy named after Greek philosopher Socrates, who taught students by asking a series of questions. The principle underlying the Socratic method is that students learn through the use of critical thinking, reason and logic. 

    An example of Socratic learning:

    To implement Socratic learning strategies in your classroom, arrange students in inner and outer circles. The inner circle engages in discussion, while the outer circle observes and takes notes. The outer circle then shares their observations and questions the inner circle with guidance from the instructor. The Socratic Method is one of many tools that professors at the University of Chicago Law School use to help theirstudents become lawyers. Elizabeth Garrett writes that “The Socratic Method provides all students greater confidence about talking to large groups, allows them to develop the ability to argue forcefully and persuasively, and teaches them to think critically. “

    2.4. What is problem-based learning?

    In problem-based learning, students acquire knowledge by devising a solution to a real-world problem. As they do, they acquire knowledge, as well as communication and collaboration skills.

    An example of problem-based learning pedagogical practice:

    Concept mapping is an engaging activity that helps students tackle complex course concepts. Divide the class into teams and present them with a course-related problem. One team member writes down a solution and passes the sheets of paper along to the next team member, who builds upon that idea and then passes it along to the rest of the team. In the end, a spokesperson can present their ultimate solution. In a study monitoring the learning of students in an Engineering course, the research found that participants’ learning gains from problem-based learning were two times their gains from a traditional lecture.

    2.5 What is collaborative pedagogy?

    Collaborative pedagogy rejects the notion that students can think, learn and write effectively in isolation. Collaborative pedagogy is a learner-centered strategy that strives to maximize critical thinking, learning and writing skills through peer-to-peer interaction and interpersonal engagement.

    An example of collaborative pedagogical practice:

    Set up stations or posters in a few locations around the classroom and get students to participate in a gallery walk. Divide students into small groups and have them rotate between each station together sorting their observations into categories. Finally, ask them to write down a list of questions about the source material they are viewing.

    2.6. What is integrative pedagogy?

    Integrative learning is the process of making connections between concepts and experiences so that information and skills can be applied to novel and complex issues or challenges.

    An example of integrative pedagogical practice:

    Hands-on learning experiences, like community service, are a great way to bring integrative pedagogy into the classroom. Holding fundraisers, volunteering at local schools or eldercare homes or preparing meals for those experiencing food insecurity are forms of experiential learning that can help students take part in community service activities, like volunteering at food kitchens, tutoring children in local schools, or working in local prisons and detention centers to help with literacy skills, like Queen’s Students for Literacy.

    2.7. What is reflective pedagogy?

    Reflective pedagogy encourages the instructor to reflect upon lessons, projects and assessments, with the goal of improving them for future use. Students are also encouraged to reflect on their performance on assessments and look for areas where they can improve.

    An example of reflective pedagogy:

    Conversation stations are a great way for students to engage with their peers and reflect on their own learnings. Instructors start by sharing a list of discussion questions pertaining to a course reading, video or case study. Students are put into groups and given five-to-ten minutes to discuss, before rotating to another group. The students who have just joined a group have an opportunity to share findings from their last discussion, before answering the second question with their new group. Similarly, reflective pedagogy is useful when used as a complement to placement-based internships. These pedagogical strategies allow students to understand what they have learned and experienced on a deeper level.

    2.8. What is critical pedagogy?

    Critical pedagogy asserts that issues of social justice and democracy are not distinct from acts of teaching and learning. It is a theory and practice that helps students question and challenge prevalent beliefs and practices—and achieve critical consciousness.

    An example of critical pedagogy:

    Flipped classroom strategies aim to increase student engagement and learning by having students complete readings at home and then work on live problem-solving during class time. These strategies allow instructors to orient their teaching to be knowledge-based, focusing on the development of critical thinking skills and understanding what it means to create a just society.

    2.9. What is culturally responsive teaching?

    Culturally responsive teaching is a more modern pedagogy that acknowledges, responds to and celebrates fundamental cultures. It strives to offer equitable access to education for students from all cultures.

    An example of culturally responsive teaching:

    Use learning stations in your classroom to accommodate a variety of student learning styles at the same time. Whether due to culture, socialization, preference or learning needs, students respond differently to a variety of content. You can provide a range of material to each student by setting up learning stations where students can play a game or watch a video.

    3. Creating your own pedagogy

    To create your own pedagogy, start by forming a personal philosophy of teaching statement. This is a crucial step in the profession of teaching. This helps students manage their expectations about your teaching methods and better approach your curriculum. Critically, make sure to support students in finding the best ways to understand the subject matter and encourage engaging discussions in the classroom.

    It’s also important to be mindful of the different educational experiences students have and their preferred methods of participation, as well as their personal experiences and backgrounds. That might include monitoring for cues like wait time between talking in a conversation, eye contact or using written forms of communication, like discussion threads. You can use real-world experiences to demonstrate abstract concepts, and link them back to everyday experiences to which students can relate. Followed by activities that are purpose-built to involve students, this helps learners break down course concepts in their own ways.

    3.1. How can pedagogy support your curriculum?

    Pedagogy can allow students to gain a deeper understanding of subject matter and can help them apply their learnings to their own personal experiences outside the classroom. Teachers can work together with students to come up with the best way for subject matter to be studied.

    Once you’ve created your own pedagogy in higher education, you can then develop course material and activities that are challenging for students. This will assist them in cognitive development, ensuring that they advance their understanding of concepts to higher levels.

    With a clear understanding of your pedagogy, students can follow your instruction and feedback clearly. They know what they need to do and how to do it, and can respond in kind. This encourages engaging dialogue between educators and students, as well as among students themselves—that’s because everyone shares ideas, questions, and knowledge to explore concepts and deepen their knowledge.

    3.2. How does pedagogy impact the learner?

    With a clear and concise understanding of pedagogy, everyone is on the same page. Students can comfortably share ideas and understand how curriculum will be approached and what’s expected of them. 

    Students expand their knowledge base, but also understand how to use their learnings in authentic and relevant real-world contexts. They can draw on their own cultural knowledge as well to come up with unique and personalized thoughts and opinions. Concrete evidence, facts and data, are combined with the exploration of cultural differences of others to further expand knowledge. This allows students to reflect on new concepts and open their minds to different approaches.

    Through your pedagogical strategies, students can also learn what approaches work best for them: Which learning activities and learning styles they tend to gravitate towards—and how to develop concepts and build mental models to further their learning—are all important elements to consider. Overall, active learning makes student engagement rise. Students get to participate in personalized teaching strategies, rather than be mere spectators in the classroom.

    4. How is pedagogy changing?

    Pedagogy has been evolving to better support 21st-century skills and ideas. The traditional classroom lecture is no longer as effective as it once was. Teaching has expanded to include new forms of learning, like interactive and collaborative projects and online and remote curricula, and to accommodate more flexible schedules.

    Real-world scenarios and cultural differences are being taken into account, affording students new ways to acquire, construct and organize their learning. Pedagogy is shifting focus beyond basic memorization and application of simple procedures to aiding students in higher-order learning, including critical thinking skills, effective communication, and greater autonomy.

    4.1. Online learning

    Online learning has become a significant part of higher education. Any modern pedagogy must account for students finding, analyzing and applying knowledge from a growing number of online tools, platforms and sources. Higher-order skills, like critical thinking and the ability to learn more independently, as well as in larger groups, are essential for engaging in online learning in a meaningful way.

    Students must be comfortable using technology to help them learn, and to access, share, and create useful information and gain better fluency in a subject. Educators, in turn, can use technology to enhance course materials and further support their pedagogies through blended learning that combines classrooms with online teaching, flipped classrooms that provide materials students can access after class, like videos, lecture notes, quizzes, and further readings, and overall wider access to sources and experts online.

    They can integrate new forms of technology to teach, like videos, animations, and simulations through sources like YouTube channels, podcasts and clickers. Digital textbooks can incorporate content like video and audio clips, animations, and rich graphics that students can access and annotate. All of this content enhances the experience for students, and particularly benefits students who are struggling. It can also reduce spending since students have plenty of valuable, real-time updated information at their fingertips for free.

    4.2. Personalizing pedagogies

    It’s critical that what you’re teaching students is relevant and meaningful, and personalized to their experiences. The increase in non-formal, self-directed learning methods means that students have more access to information than ever before. It makes it easier for educators to track their learning through digital activities. But it also requires more attention in guiding them to the right sources, adjusting lecture content and adopting approaches purpose-built for engagement and collaboration.

    In many innovative pedagogies, there’s a power shared between educator and student. Students learn more independently, instead of following a set course of lectures and textbooks from an instructor. In many cases, students thrive in self-directed learning methods, while educators can use lecture time more effectively for discussion and collaborative work.

    The educator, then, becomes a critical guide and assessor for students, linking them to accepted sources of information and emphasizing the importance of accreditation. They are no longer the only source of information, delivered in chunks via lectures. And this requires an overhaul of the strategy towards how student learning is achieved, monitored and assessed.

    5. Conclusion

    Pedagogies are constantly evolving. You can develop your own, inspired by common ones and modified for 21st-century learning. A pedagogy must fit your audience, and focus on helping students develop an understanding of the material beyond basic memorization and surface knowledge. Students should be able to relate concepts back to the real world, and even their own lives.

    Every pedagogy is different. A good starting point is to create a philosophy of teaching statement that outlines your communication goals as an instructor, and how you plan to relate the work you do in the classroom to professional development once the student moves on to a career. Then, design classroom experiences around this philosophy, work with students to adapt methods to encourage positive responses and determine how you will evaluate and assess their performance. It’s also worth considering how you will integrate technology into lesson plans and classwork, as well as promote inclusivity.

    Taking all of this into consideration makes for a great recipe for a successful pedagogical approach. The more aware you are of the way you are teaching, the better you’ll understand what works best for your students.

    Download the free guide: 9 Pedagogical Approaches—and How to Use Them in Your Course

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  • 25 Effective Instructional Strategies For Educators

    25 Effective Instructional Strategies For Educators

    Instructional strategies refer to the techniques instructors use to deliver their lessons. Effective instructional strategies—also known as teaching strategies—help students become actively involved in the learning process. When done right, instructional strategies also support students in reaching their learning objectives. 

    By reading the guide below (our downloading this free list of instructional strategies), you’ll gain a solid understanding of the various types of teaching strategies, why they’re important and how they can be applied to the learning process to benefit both professors and students.

    In this guide, you’ll:

    • Learn what instructional strategies are, and the various strategies educators can use to teach more effectively
    • Gain a deeper understanding of how instructional strategies for teachers—including formal and informal assessments, case studies, debates, flipped classrooms and more—play into the overall student learning experience
    • Get equipped to implement instructional strategies that are appropriate for your course in order to become more effective at teaching and engaging students
    • Get access to a free instructional strategies list, packed with 25 easy-to-implement exercises for your next course

    With this collection of teaching strategies, you’ll be ready to guide students towards success in any classroom setting. Plus, putting a few of these techniques into practice will ensure students come to class prepared to engage with the material, with their peers and with you.

    1. What are instructional strategies?

    Instructional strategies encompass any type of learning technique a teacher uses to help students learn or gain a better understanding of the course material. They allow teachers to make the learning experience more fun and practical and can also encourage students to take more of an active role in their education. The objective of using instructional strategies beyond subject comprehension is to create students who are independent, strategic learners. The hope is, with time and practice, students will be able to select the right strategies on their own and use them effectively to complete tasks.

    There are various instructional strategy examples that can be used effectively at all levels and subject areas, with a wide range of learning styles. These learning strategies motivate students by improving their engagement, capturing their attention and encouraging them to focus on not only remembering course material, but truly understanding it.

    Educators who use instructional strategies allow students to make meaningful connections between concepts learned in class and real-life situations. They offer an opportunity for students to demonstrate their knowledge and course correct on their own when needed. Teachers also benefit from using instructional strategies because they’re able to better monitor and assess student performance through different methods of evaluation.

    2. What’s the difference between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques and teaching practices?

    In the dynamic landscape of higher education, understanding the nuances between instructional strategies, teaching strategies, teaching techniques, and teaching practices is crucial for educators aiming to enhance their pedagogical approach. Instructional strategies encompass a broader framework, outlining the overarching plans and methods employed to facilitate learning. These strategies guide the selection of teaching methods and techniques, serving as the foundation for effective educational practices. On the other hand, teaching strategies delve into the specific approaches instructors use to convey information and engage students. These strategies act as the vehicles through which instructional goals are achieved, embracing diverse methodologies such as collaborative learning, active participation, and technology integration.

    Zooming in further, teaching techniques are the tactical tools and methods employed within a specific teaching strategy. These are the hands-on practices educators implement to deliver content, foster understanding, and promote critical thinking. Examples include case studies, role-playing, and interactive discussions. Finally, teaching practices encompass the comprehensive application of instructional, teaching, and technical strategies in the classroom. It reflects the amalgamation of various methods tailored to the unique needs of learners and the subject matter. By dissecting these components, higher education professors can refine their pedagogical repertoire, fostering a rich and dynamic learning environment for their students.

    3. Types of instructional or teaching strategies

    There are far too many types of instructional or teaching strategies to catalog in one place. And there’s no single, specific way to group them together. While the categories below are by no means exhaustive, instructional strategies often fall under general groupings. These include: active learning, assessment-based, group-based, advanced strategies, organizational (or classroom management) and tiered.

    4. Active learning instructional strategies and teaching strategy examples

    4.1. Exit tickets

    Before students leave your learning environment, ask them to answer a question related to a key concept discussed in the lesson that day. They can write it down on a piece of paper or index card. Questions can be simple, like asking students what they found most interesting about the lesson. Or, they can be more complex, such as having them draw a sketch that demonstrates what they learned, or asking them to connect the key concept they learned to a real-life situation. Have students hand the ‘tickets‘ to you as they exit (or have them submit a response to your discussion board), then review the responses.

    The feedback can help educators determine which students need additional teaching in specific areas. Using this approach, teachers gain a quick understanding of how the whole class is grasping and reacting to the material.

    Use the information from the exit tickets to form groups in the class that follows. Place students at similar levels of understanding, or who have similar views on a topic, together. Conversely, group students with opposing views together in order to foster debate and conversation. Learn more about the types of exit tickets you can use in your next course—download an exit ticket template here.

    4.2. Flipped classrooms

    Regardless of where you teach, flipping your classroom is one of the most popular forms of active learning and among the most well-known instructional strategies. Instead of using classroom time for lecturing, educators provide students with a pre-recorded lecture to watch prior to class. They’re often concise, posted to sites like YouTube, or presented in the form of a podcast that students can listen to at home or during their commute. Educators can then use classroom time to engage students in learning activities related to the lecture they’ve already seen or heard.

    Flipped classrooms are an effective teaching technique because they allow students to review and learn concepts on their own time. Students are then free to complete more interactive and collaborative work in class, including discussions and tasks with their peers and teacher. They can also collaborate and discuss material online, via forum discussions with peers and subject matter experts. In class, students can actively apply concepts via peer learning, group work, and presentations.

    Flipped learning helps keep students continuously engaged in class instead of just passively listening. And it makes good use of downtime by allowing students to combine a workout or commute time with further learning, when it’s most convenient for them. Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it simple to adopt a flipped classroom—simply run quizzes prior to your lecture and create interactive discussions for students to collaborate during class time.

    Looking for more? Get 25 additional instructional strategies in this free guide.

    4.3. Journals and learning logs

    This instructional strategy lets students record their thoughts, feelings and reflections on a variety of topics. Journal entries could refer to something discussed in your lecture, or they can allow students to reflect on a relevant newspaper article or piece of media they came across. Journals can also be used for getting students to think critically about the course material and how it can be applied to the real world. This activity lets students make predictions, brainstorm ideas, connect ideas and even identify solutions to problems presented in class.

    You might consider using the following prompts in advance of a journaling assignment to promote higher-level thinking. At the start of a lesson, you might ask, “What questions do you have from yesterday?” During the middle of a lesson, ask, “What do you want to know more about?” At the end of your lesson, ask, “How could you use these findings outside of class?” Encourage students to note any thoughts that come to mind at these three points. At the end of the semester, their journal can form the foundation of a more comprehensive study guide.

    4.4. Minute papers

    Pose a question about the day’s teaching, and give students a moment to reflect before writing down their answer on their own or in pairs. The responses can provide valuable insight into student comprehension of the material.

    Minute papers can be presented in a number of ways, but the easiest is a “ticket out,” whereby educators wrap up class a few minutes early. (We saw this earlier in our instructional strategies list, under ‘exit ticket’). They then ask students to answer what the most important thing they learned today was and what questions they still have. The first question requires students to think quickly, recall class material, decide on the main points, and put it into their own words. For the second, they must think further about what they’ve understood thus far.

    Teachers can use the responses to determine how well students understand the material. Minute papers can also help students understand where their own learning gaps are. Once this is realized, both students and teachers can identify and address weaknesses.

    4.5. Muddiest point

    The ‘muddiest point’ is another active learning instructional strategy. This activity asks students to use index cards (or an app), to anonymously submit what part(s) of the course material they’re having the most difficulty with. Educators can then use the responses to determine where extra instruction is needed and adjust lessons accordingly.

    Alternatively, these topics can be addressed during student review sessions. Ask students to identify topics they feel they need clarification on and consolidate these into a list. Then get each student to select a term from the list they feel they can explain to the rest of the class.

    Cross it off the list, and move on to the next. By the end, it will be easy to see which concepts students are having the most issues with by process of elimination. And if terms haven’t been selected, they are being avoided for a reason. Naturally, students will pick the terms they are most comfortable with.

    Use that information to devise more instructor-led sessions on the concepts that most students are confused about, or that require more clarification, to eventually complete the entire list.

    4.6. Reflection

    Hand out blank index cards or a pre-designed worksheet at the end of a class session and ask students to use them to submit a response to a question about the day’s lesson. Alternatively, ask students to submit a discussion board response. The reflection prompt could be simple, like asking what they learned, or what they found the most interesting. Or, you can make your prompt more application-based, like asking them to connect what they learned to a real-life situation, or telling them to explain why what they learned is important.

    The purpose of reflection is to encourage students to consider what they have learned. Like a number of other instructional strategies in this list, it also gives the teacher an idea of where students stand on a topic or issue so they can use this information to help better prepare for the next lesson. The added benefit is that having students express these thoughts on paper can result in better memory retention.

    To drive this strategy in higher education, Top Hat’s interactive discussions make it easy for students to reflect on what was covered in class. Allow students to discuss concepts with their peers, with the ability to grade discussions as desired.

    4.7. Think-pair-share

    This active learning technique is another of the best-known instructional strategies. After presenting a lesson, pause the lecture for a moment to ask students to pair up with a partner. Have them discuss the material they just learned. Prepare questions, and, once they’ve had some time to discuss with their partner(s), get students to take turns presenting their observations to the rest of the class.

    Make the question challenging, such that it could spark debate between the grouped or paired students. Give them just a few minutes to talk amongst themselves and come to a collective conclusion.

    Think-pair-share can work especially well for the first few lessons of a class, keeping students on their toes and interested in the material that is to come. But it can also help recapture student enthusiasm near the middle of a term, reminding students that they aren’t alone in their learning and that others share their views or concerns, and that there are different perspectives to support an issue that are worth considering beyond their own.

    5. Assessment-based instructional strategies

    5.1. Assessment

    One of the most used instructional strategies, assessments are considered any graded test, quiz, project, or exam. Informal checks of student progress throughout the year, such as discussions or presentations, can be included too. There are many different assessment-based instructional strategies (and a few follow in this group).

    In general, there are various ways to run assessments and different ways to adapt them to class time. These include: asking certain groups of students to only complete specific parts of a test, allowing students to respond orally versus in writing, or asking students to demonstrate what they’ve learned in a more hands-on way, like building something or drawing a diagram.

    The most critical thing to remember with assessments is to try and stay focused on evaluating the concept that’s most important for the student to grasp. This might mean your assessments have to be more practical. Asking a student to put the learning to work and actually do something can be a far better indicator of what they know than simple written or oral answers.

    One tip is to include test or quiz questions that vary in complexity, and focus on different aspects of a concept. You could include one question mandatory for responding, but allow students to choose which ones they want to answer among the remaining ones.

    → Download Now: 25 Free Instructional Strategies

    5.2. Cubing

    “Cubing” is a version of the above. It involves writing a command or question on each of the six sides of a cube, then having students roll the cube like a die and respond to the question or command accordingly.

    The questions can relate to describing, comparing, contrasting, applying, predicting or imagining concepts. Get students even more involved in this cooperative learning activity by having them come up with their own questions that they then exchange with classmates, taking turns to answer.

    Take it to another level by creating multiple cubes with questions of varying levels of complexity. Assign students to work in groups—have each group of students write or dictate their answers to the questions on their cube. Use the data to determine which students should work on which concepts come assignment time.

    5.3. Grade as you go

    This instructional strategy is ideal for subjects that involve repetitive practices and rote memorization, such as mathematics and language. Have students work on assignments either alone or in pairs, checking and marking their work.

    This teaching technique is motivational because students instantly know if they’re on the right track, allowing them to gauge their achievement level. But it also helps students immediately correct something they’re doing wrong. Once they identify the mistakes, they can translate that learning to subsequent questions, instead of completing the entire assignment incorrectly.

    Instructional strategies such as ‘Grade As You Go’ also help educators pinpoint students who have a superior grasp of the material, allowing them to move on to a more challenging assignment.

    By the time the assignment is completed, it’s far more likely that the entire class will be ready to move on to the next concept or skill. And since grades have already been given, it reduces after-class grading time for teachers. Put this strategy into practice this fall by relying on the Top Hat Gradebook. This comprehensive tool lets you view attendance, participation and completion data in one place and makes it easy to retroactively adjust grade weights as needed.

    5.4. Homework practice

    The purpose of homework, as one of the numerous assessment-based instructional strategies, is to extend learning beyond the classroom setting. Homework gives students extra time to master concepts studied in class and further refine their learning. To use this effectively, assign homework based on the student’s skill level, ensuring it aligns with the areas they need more practice in.

    The amount and complexity of homework varies depending on subject and level. Students should be able to complete homework independently, with minimal involvement from tutors or peers. If they can’t, it should serve as a red flag to both the student and educator.

    Built to enable this strategy, Top Hat makes it easy to create, personalize and assign interactive homework assignments. Choose from a variety of question types including fill-in-the-blank or multiple choice and embed discussion questions throughout your assessments.

    5.5. Questions and quizzes

    Question-asking is among the simplest of the instructional strategies, but it can still be strategically complex. The simplest way to gauge student understanding of course material is to ask them questions about it. During group discussions, pose several questions of varying complexity so that everyone has a chance to respond, including both those who are experiencing difficulties with the class, as well as those who are mastering the concepts. Strategically adjust the questions you ask based on who you plan to call upon. This helps build student confidence and ensures the class runs smoothly.

    Timing is important, too. When the class starts, or there’s a pause between concepts or topics, you can administer a quick quiz or poll to get an understanding of how far along students are in their learning. In order to effectively assess comprehension, it’s best to not attach a grade to this activity. Students will inevitably worry if the quiz is going to impact their overall grade for the class. Platforms like Kahoot! can be used to facilitate informal games or trivia sessions at the start of class, setting the stage for what’s to follow in your lecture.

    Use technology like clickers to administer things like multiple choice quizzes that can be tabulated immediately for large classes, with questions that challenge or check an assumption before a lecture begins. Then, administer the same or a similar quiz at the end of class, and compare the results.

    Educators can determine how effective the lesson was and see if they need to revisit the subject matter again, or can confidently move on to the next topic.

    6. Group teaching techniques

    6.1. Case studies

    Case studies, as instructional strategies or teaching techniques, are more spontaneous than structured group projects. But this is a good thing. It helps prepare students for when they enter the workforce, where problem solving on the fly is an essential skill. In a practical work environment, students can’t just do what they’re told and expect to succeed. Case studies can help prepare them for life after college or university.

    To use case studies, put students into groups and task them with finding a way to apply the knowledge they’ve acquired from reading course materials and listening to lectures into real-world scenarios that match your assigned content area(s).

    In a classroom setting, working on case studies encourages students to think critically about what they’ve learned, not just recite points back to the class.

    6.2. Debates

    Instructional strategies like these work as a structured form of argumentation. Debates require students to research concepts and think critically in order to present their positions in a convincing and justifiable way.

    Most fitting for concepts with opposing points of view, debates help students develop listening and presentation skills. Once presented in class, having a debate can also introduce new perspectives on topics, and convince students to conduct further research in order to build stronger arguments, or intelligently counter those of the opposing side.

    6.3. Peer instruction

    With the teacher’s guidance, students can prepare and present course material in class, encouraging interaction with peers. Try to do this without the use of slides as an aid, so students have to communicate more with classmates and discover more creative ways to present the material.

    It’s best to do these kinds of student-led instructional strategies at the beginning of a class, so students can teach one another about what they know, sharing their knowledge and experiences that relate to course material.

    6.4. Role play

    The use of simulations and games in your instructional toolkit can give you a deeper look at the impact of learning, as well as demonstrate how students can invent and experiment with learned concepts. Role playing also offers students a chance to practice their interpersonal skills in an environment in which they are comfortable and familiar.

    Having the opportunity to visualize, model or role play in dynamic situations promotes curiosity, exploration and problem solving. It can aid students in working towards a greater understanding of the material. The more ways that students have of representing the knowledge they’ve acquired beyond writing and oral explanation, the better their comprehension and recall of the information will be.

    In math and science fields, for example, students can experiment with simulated projects that would otherwise be difficult or cost-prohibitive to do in real settings. Examples include: designing a model of a roller coaster to understand slopes, angles and speed; using a hard-boiled egg to demonstrate Newton’s Law of Motion; or building a model volcano to understand what makes them erupt.

    7. Teaching strategies examples for advanced students

    7.1. Curriculum compacting

    These instructional strategies encourage educators to identify students who already have advanced knowledge of a subject, skill or concept so they can spend less time on these areas. Curriculum compacting frees students up to focus more on the areas where they need to develop a greater understanding, versus concepts with which they’re already proficient. It’s ideal when working with individual students or small groups.

    7.2. Independent study project

    If students appear to be ahead of the class, assign them independent study projects. These projects should allow them to focus on a single concept around material discussed in class. They can also work on a separate but related topic for which they’ve expressed an interest or passion, making this an inquiry-based learning exercise.

    Once the project is completed, the student can share what he or she learned with the class, demonstrating their mastery of the concept, and further educating the rest of the class on a specific area or example.

    Independent study projects usually run anywhere from three to four weeks.

    8. Organizational instructional strategies

    8.1. Agendas

    An agenda sets out a comprehensive list of the assignments, activities, projects and tests students are responsible for working on and completing throughout the year, along with a timeline for each. Students can decide how they want to complete the work and in what order. Do they want to focus on one area of learning for an entire week? Do they want to tackle the subject matter they’re most comfortable with first, or start with more difficult concepts? In addition to encouraging students to come up with a structure they can follow, agendas help them practice time management skills.

    To get going, provide each student with a blank calendar to fill in with their own schedule, ensuring they’ve organized work in order to meet assignment and project due dates. If different students are working on the same part of an assignment at the same time, consider allowing them to work together during class. Take on the role of a facilitator here, helping students set reasonable deadlines according to their needs.

    8.2. Anchor activities

    Also referred to as ‘sponge’ activities, anchor activities are assignments that students must work on immediately in order to maximize instruction time. They can complete these activities at the beginning of every class or right after, but the idea is to keep the learning and educational process going.

    Anchor activities might include the student revisiting a question posed in the previous day’s class and composing a response to it, or presenting and discussing an answer out loud to a partner. Another option could be drawing a picture to represent a concept they just learned, or writing down an opinion about a key issue. This instructional strategy for teachers can also be used to provide students with notes as a reference when they’re studying for exams.

    Be mindful of anchor activities that are simply ‘busy work’ to pass the time. Just as a sponge soaks up water, the goal of anchor activities is to help students soak up a better understanding of a concept or skill.

    8.3. Knowledge charts

    Before delving into a new topic or concept, have students submit what they already know, what they want to know and what they’ve learned already. Then, assess their prior knowledge on the subject, and get a feel for how interested they are in a topic.

    Knowledge charts, as instructional tools, can also be used at various times to see how students are progressing, and if their interest in the topic is waning or growing. In filling out these graphic organizers, teachers can get an idea of where students are at academically. Students themselves can gauge their own progress and see where more work is needed.

    8.4. Learning contracts

    Another one of the several instructional strategies aimed at more advanced students is the learning contract. Use it to help students who need to be challenged by providing a specific assignment and list of directives that they must complete within a set period of time. Work with the student to set out the requirements of the contract, and provide a blank calendar they can use to devise a doable timeline, determining what dates and times they need in order to complete different parts of the assignment. 

    This is an effective instructional strategy to help students set their own learning goals and practice time management skills—both of which are useful in the working world. Once the contract and timeline are set, encourage students who are working on the same parts of the assignment at the same time to work together.

    8.5. Portfolio development

    Portfolios allow students to gather, organize and illustrate examples of their learning and academic achievements. Portfolio development is the process of creating, collecting, reflecting on and selecting work samples that best showcase students’ understanding of a given concept. Once students select their top pieces that best represent their learning outcomes, they can then use a binder or scrapbook to organize their work.

    Work samples kept in a portfolio might include notes from an interview, a diagram, storyboards, essays, infographics and more. Portfolio development is a necessary and effective process for most humanities and STEM majors. Art students can use a portfolio to curate their top pieces—whether paintings, drawings or photographs—at the end of the semester. Alternatively, students in architecture or engineering courses can use a portfolio to house mockups and wireframes of a new building or the parts of an engine. No two students’ portfolios will include the same work since these differ based on discipline and course.

    9. Tiered instructional strategies

    9.1. Tiered activities

    Set up three or four activities of varying complexity for students to participate in. Each should have the same common goal of helping students understand a specific element of the subject material. For example, it might be different experiments that all explain the basic concept of physics.

    Start with a mid-level activity that would apply to most students in the class, then include one that’s a step-up in difficulty to challenge students with a better understanding of the material. Alternatively, offer a simplified version for students who are still working to gain a full understanding of the concept.

    Place students in groups based on their perceived level, or give a brief description of each of the assignments and let them choose which level they feel most comfortable working in. Once completed, discuss and compare the results.

    By the end of this collaborative exercise, each group will have a greater understanding of the material. If students are able to choose which group they join, the teacher will also get a feel for the comfort level of each student.

    9.2. Tiered rubrics

    Present a couple of rubrics (scoring guides) to students, based on their current level, so they have the skills needed in order to better focus and be successful in class.

    The rubrics should all contain the same basic categories, but the point value or required elements should be adjusted based on the student’s readiness. For students equipped to take on greater challenges, add more categories or requirements. Conversely, remove some requirements and/or categories for students who need more assistance, or haven’t quite grasped the material just yet.

    10. Conclusion

    In exploring various types of instructional strategies, you’ll find that there’s something to suit every type of student level, subject and lecture format. When applied effectively, instructional strategies for teaching can help students gain a deeper understanding of course material and encourage critical thinking, beyond basic retention and surface understanding. Educators, too, can benefit by using different teaching methods throughout the semester to determine the efficacy of lesson plans, and how every student is progressing through each concept.

    Download our free instructional strategies guide, filled with 25 effective activities and best practices to use in any college course.

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  • Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy: 3 Ways To Reshape The Pyramid

    Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy: 3 Ways To Reshape The Pyramid

    Bloom’s Taxonomy is probably the most widespread and enduringly popular model in education. It was created in 1956 by Dr. Benjamin Bloom and colleagues at the Board of Examinations, University of Chicago. In 2001, the pyramid was revised by Lorin Anderson, a student of Bloom’s, resulting in Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy.

    Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy focuses on learning outcomes. The framework demands that very first thing that instructors need to think about is what students have to know by the end of the course. Learning objectives need actions to get to them. And Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy is hierarchical, requiring your students to achieve each level in succession—in order to understand a concept, you must remember it; to apply a concept you must first understand it, and so on.

    There’s no doubt that this way of classifying educational objectives has been extremely useful to millions of teachers over the years. But for those who might not have had conclusively positive results evaluating Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy or incorporating it into instruction, it’s worth considering some more ways to think outside the pyramid to improve teaching and learning. Here are three things you could bear in mind when using Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy in your lesson planning.

    1. Cultivate judgment rather than transmit information

    The instructional strategies behind Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy require educators to begin with “lower order” tasks, arguing that students need to master these first. This means we front-load our courses with information: information that can be recalled, defined, identified or another objective in the lowest layer of the pyramid.

    But constructivist theories of learning—and our own classroom experiences—tell us that learning does not happen through information transference alone. A learner is an not empty vessel into which we pour definitions. He or she is not going to truly understand something without interpreting it, questioning it, or relating to it.

    So when designing your course, try to incorporate ways to strengthen and take advantage of their faculties of judgment.

    What would it mean to cultivate judgment during a course? Start by doing. Engage your students to take action in some relevant way—through a lab experiment, for example, or by field research. Another way to do this is role-play. When I taught history, we started out by taking on the identities of various countries, coming to decisions supported by research and analysis. The historical facts—and there were many—were all taught in this context. In this way, facts are put into the service of learning, rather than becoming an initial goal in themselves.

    2. Start, rather than end, with creativity

    As educator Shelley Wright has pointed out, Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy gives the impression there’s a “scarcity of creativity.”1 Only those strong enough or talented enough to work their way up to the summit of the pyramid can be creative. The truth is that everybody is naturally creative—just think of a seven year-old at play—except that this way of being in the world is often squelched or squandered. Ken Robinson, for instance, has strongly argued that creativity is typically “educated out” of us.2

    What could it mean to start with creativity? Have your students create on day one. (OK, maybe day two or three.) Wright explains how this works for her media studies class. Instead of beginning by laying out design principles and the history of media, she gets the students to make an advert mockup. Then they compare their mockups to published adverts. Wright helps them analyze differences and introduces, through student-facilitated research, the major principles and concepts of design that help them explain their own creation and those of others.

    A create-first approach could work just as well in courses that are theory-rich and fact-heavy such as philosophy, literature, or science. In environmental science, for example, ask students to propose a solution to deforestation or ocean acidification. Then, starting from their contributions, explore the principles, factors, concepts, contingencies at play, including the ones that were omitted. Have students compare their solutions to others’. Get them to elicit the principle involved, the recent literature in the area, and articulate and fully describe the concepts and the facts.

    3. Promote awareness instead of entrenching hierarchy

    The stratification of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy into “lower” and “higher” order objectives sets up a value proposition. It leads educators to think that certain kinds of learning necessarily reflect superior kinds of cognition.

    But as Roland Case argues, tasks at every level of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy can be performed thoughtfully or thoughtlessly.3 It is possible to defend a position in a completely superficial way. It is possible to propose a plan that lacks good judgment or analysis. It is possible to create something without building from a base of relevant knowledge. Indeed, that is why it’s necessary to practice and develop judgment, critical thinking skills and creative problem-solving.

    When Anderson and Krathwohl revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, they accounted for this with a second scale for assessment called The Knowledge Dimension, which lies as another dimension or axis to the cognitive domain. One should assess each of the revised categories (Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create) according to whether factual, conceptual, procedural or metacognitive knowledge is demonstrated.

    If no category is higher or lower than any other, then leveling makes no sense. With proper consideration for The Knowledge Dimension, we are far from a pyramid… and always have been! But who knew? As Leslie Wilson points out, “what most educators are given in training is a simple chart listing levels and related accompanying verbs.”4

    Bloom’s Taxonomy revised: A pyramid alternative

    And so, if we want to engage students’ creativity, cultivate judgment and make sure that each stage of learning is fully developed and attuned to the right outcome, then organizing anew the existing structure of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy could go a very long way. Instead of a pyramid, how about a mandala?

    Bloom's Taxonomy in a Mandala or Rose format. CC-BY-SA 3.0 K. Aainsqatsi

    Strange things happen when we feel beholden to a structure. If lesson planning with Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy hasn’t been working for you or your class, rethink the background on how it should be applied. Reconsider the way you’re assessing student learning. Break down the hierarchy and rebuild.

    Illustration credits: CC-BY 2.0 Vanderbilt University; CC-BY-SA 3.0 K. Aqinsqatsi.

    Related stories
    Bloom’s verbs and how to apply them to questions

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    References

    1. Wright, S. (2012, May 15). Flipping Bloom’s Taxonomy [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://plpnetwork.com/2012/05/15/flipping-blooms-taxonomy/
    2. Parker, Q. (2018, October 3). The Possibilities of an Agile Classroom: Sir Ken Robinson [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://tophat.com/blog/sir-ken-robinson-qa/
    3. Case, R. Unfortunate Consequences of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved from https://tc2.ca/uploads/PDFs/Critical%20Discussions/unfortunate_consequences_blooms_taxonomy.pdf
    4. Wilson, L. O. (2017, January 20). Understanding the New Version of Bloom’s Taxonomy. [Blog post] https://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/beyond-bloom-cognitive-taxonomy-revised/

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  • What Are Student Learning Outcomes?

    What Are Student Learning Outcomes?

    Learning outcomes are descriptions of the abilities, skills and knowledge that are used for assessing student learning. Learning outcomes should outline what students possess and can demonstrate upon completion of a learning experience or set of experiences. When developing a list of student learning outcomes for educators to set as curriculum objectives to improve student learning, consider the following recommendations:

    How to Build Student Learning Outcomes

    Choose between 3-5 learning outcomes: You should choose a sufficient amount of learning outcomes to ensure student progress can be measured without becoming overly complicated for educators to assess. It is also worthwhile to point out that not all educational activities will assess all learning outcomes. Each educational activity can assess students’ development and comprehension focusing on 1-2 student learning objectives for each class. Less than 3 objectives likely mean that student learning objectives are not robust enough for an entire course.

    Learning outcomes should be straightforward: The outcomes identified and described in your plan should be concise and simple. They should avoid complex phrasing or compound statements that mesh more than one statement together to communicate effectively. Each learning outcome should focus on the development of one skill or the meeting of one goal in order to be straightforward and ensure effective learning.

    Learning outcomes should be expressed in the future tense: It is very important for the proper implementation of student learning outcomes that they are expressed in the future tense. The statement should express what an individual student should be able to do as the result of specific instruction or educational activity. Outcomes should involve active learning, and be observable so they can be quantified for examining key student success metrics through learning assessment. They should create and make use of information literacy skills.

    Learning outcomes should be realistic: In order to ensure student learning outcomes are successful, they must be attainable for the students for whom they are designated. Outcomes need to be designed with students’ ability, their initial skill sets, cognitive development and the length of the institutional time frame (a week, a semester, etc) designated to attain these skill sets in mind. Further, they should also align with the material for teaching to students.

    Learning outcomes should align with the curriculum: The learning outcomes developed should be consistent with the curriculum objectives within the program and discipline in which they are taught. This is especially important when interpreting assessment results to analyze where changes in instruction should be made. Curriculum mapping is one example of an effective way to ensure that chosen learning outcomes correspond to the designated curriculum. A curriculum map is a diagram that explains which learning outcomes are plotted against specific program courses. This helps ensure that learning goals are reached in a timely manner.

    Methods of Constructing Learning Outcomes

    Implementing taxonomies: Taxonomies of learning experiences and student outcomes can be useful outlines for developing thorough and insightful lists of student outcomes. Taxonomies classify and compartmentalize the different types of student learning. Taxonomies usually follow a structure that divides learning into three categories. The first is the cognitive domain, which has six levels, ranging from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, up to increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, followed by the highest order which is classified as evaluation. The second domain is the affective domain involves our feelings, emotions, and attitudes. This domain includes the ways in which humans deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations, and attitudes. The final domain is the psychomotor domain, which focuses refers to the motor skills learners are expected to have acquired and mastered at each stage of development.

    Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) is one traditional framework for structuring learning outcomes. Levels of performance for Bloom’s cognitive domain include knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. These categories are arranged in ascending order of cognitive complexity where evaluation represents the highest level. There are six steps within Bloom’s Taxonomy to achieve learning outcomes. The first step is knowledge, which focuses on knowing and remembering important facts, concepts, terms, principles or theories. The second step is comprehension, which focuses on the understanding of specific learning concepts or curriculum objectives. The third step is application, which focuses on skills and knowledge applications to solve problems. The fourth step is analysis, which focuses on identifying different structures and organizations of specific concepts or subjects, identifying relationships and different moving elements within an organization. The fifth step is synthesis, which focuses on the creation and integration of new ideas into a solution, in order to propose an action plan and potentially formulate a new classification scheme by using critical thinking. The sixth and final step in Bloom’s Taxonomy is evaluation, which judges the quality of knowledge more broadly or a specific learning concept based on its adequacy, use, value or logic.

    Using power verbs: When constructing learning outcomes, it is important to make use of concrete action words that are able to describe and quantify specific action that is observable and measurable.

    Using a Curriculum Map: Once learning outcomes have been developed and approved, making use of a curriculum map can help in viewing how the outcomes developed are being met in each course at an institution. A curriculum map is a straightforward way to visualize the ways in which an educator or institution can list learning outcomes in the rows and the program courses in the columns to demonstrate which courses contribute to each learning outcome. In each cell, letters can be placed to indicate how the course relates to the learning outcome. Use the letters “I,” “R,’ and “E” to identify which courses in the program “introduce”, “reinforce,” or “emphasize” the corresponding learning outcomes. By putting the curriculum maps into place, educators can watch for unnecessary redundancies, inconsistencies, misalignments, weaknesses, and gaps in their learning outcomes in order to optimize them for student success in their program review.

    Measuring Student Learning Outcomes

    Assessment of student learning outcomes: Assessment is a systematic and on-going way of collecting and interpreting information in order to analyze its effectiveness. The academic assessment process can also provide greater insight into how well learning outcomes relate and correspond to the goals and outcomes developed to support the institution’s mission and purpose. An ideal learning outcomes assessment process aims to answer the questions of what an institution is doing and how well it is doing it. Assessments begins with the expression of learning outcomes and course learning. The key to writing measurable outcomes involves describing the first three components: firstly analyzing the outcome, secondly, determining the method of assessment, Third, involves recognizing the criteria for success, as part of the student-centered assessment cycle.

    Program and Performance outcomes: program and performance outcomes describe the goals of a program rather than focusing on what students should know, do or value at the end of a given time period. Program outcomes can be as one-dimensional and simple as a completion of a task or activity, although this is not as meaningful as it could be and does not provide the educator with enough information for improvement. To accomplish the latter, educators and department heads should try to assess the effectiveness of what a given program has set out to accomplish. Performance outcomes usually have quantitative targets and specific timelines.

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  • The Ultimate Guide To Online Teaching

    The Ultimate Guide To Online Teaching

    What is Online Teaching?

    Online teaching typically refers to courses that are delivered completely online, meaning there are no physical or on-campus class sessions. Online courses can be designed for a handful of enrolled students or can be made open and accessible to a wide variety of participants. Instructors may choose to teach an online course because they want to take their teaching beyond the confines of the physical classroom. Other instructors may choose to do so because they want students to benefit from the online environment. Online teaching gives students unlimited access to resources and the ability to collaborate and connect with each other at any time of day. It also gives educators the ability to teach online classes from home.

    Contents

    1) Developing and Teaching an Online Course
    2) Planning and Designing an Online Course
    3) Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Online Teaching
    4) Online Assessments
    5) 7 Best Practices in Online Teaching
    6) Conclusion

    Developing and Teaching an Online Course

    Preparing for online teaching is not as simple as taking materials from a traditional course and putting them online. Educators engaging in online teaching for the first time will need to plan their approach thoughtfully, even full-time experienced educators. This starts with identifying learning objectives and then building educational activities to support them. Rather than make wholesale use of course content from previous classes, materials should be repurposed or adapted by taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of online learning environments. Organizing course content into units, with submodules, key concept reviews and unit tests—along with a tailored and consistent content release schedule—will help ensure students remain on track to achieve desired learning outcomes.

    Online Curriculum Development

    In online teaching, curriculum development is defined as the step-by-step process used to create positive improvements in the courses offered by a school, college or university. As new discoveries are made, they have to be incorporated into the online education curricula. Innovative teaching techniques and effective online teaching strategies are constantly being developed and refined in order to improve the student learning experience.

    Current online curriculum models can be divided into two broad categories—the product model and the process model. The product model focuses primarily on results. Grades are the primary objective, with more emphasis placed on achieving desired objectives at the summation of the course rather than on the learning process itself. The process model, however, is more open-ended and focuses on how learning progresses over the course of a semester. Both models are important when it comes to developing a holistic and effective curriculum for online teaching.

    There are three types of online curriculum design: subject-centered, learner-centered and problem-centered.

      • Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline, such as mathematics, literature or biology. This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject matter being taught online, rather than the individual student.
        Educators create lists of topics and specific examples of how they should be studied, which are then mapped to the most effective online learning activity or method. This approach is most popular in large university or college classes taught online, where teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline in their classes.
      • Learner-centered curriculum design prioritizes student needs, interests and goals. It acknowledges that students are individuals and have different learning needs and therefore should not, in all cases, be subject to a standardized curriculum. This approach aims to empower learners to shape their education through choices and relies heavily on asynchronous online teaching and learning. This can be complex for large class sizes and is more suitable for smaller, seminar-style courses.
        Differentiated instruction and learning plans provide an opportunity to select assignments, teaching and learning experiences or activities online. This form of curriculum design is highly effective at engaging and motivating students, particularly in online teaching and learning environments by providing students with greater choice and flexibility. However, the drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it can create pressure on the educator to source learning materials online that are highly specific to each student’s personal learning needs. This can be challenging due to teaching time constraints.
      • Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to examine and analyze problems and develop solutions, largely using online simulations. This is considered an authentic form of learning because students are exposed to real-life issues, helping students develop skills that are transferable to the real world.
        Problem-centered curriculum design has been shown to increase the relevance of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in the online classroom. However, one shortcoming of this format is that it does not always consider individual learning styles and requires a great deal of collaboration between students.

    By considering all three types of curriculum design before you begin planning, instructors can choose the types that are best suited to their students and the learning objectives for their course.

    Planning and Designing an Online Course

    Planning for Online Teaching

    An important step in bringing your online course to life is the actual implementation. This includes aligning course materials to learning goals and in accordance with your online teaching philosophy. There are a number of things to consider during the decision-making process.

    First, it is important to understand the audience for your online course and who will be participating in supporting the delivery of modules, labs and other learning activities. Recognizing that learners may vary widely in their background, knowledge and skills is essential in order to accommodate these differences in your course design. Secondly, it is imperative to have specific learning goals in mind. An effective online pedagogy means carefully considering what you expect your students to know and be able to do at the conclusion of your course. Next, consider the different types of content your course requires. Decide how students will engage with that content and with each other. Also consider which assessment types best support the measurement of learning objectives for your students. Here are a number of helpful methods that can be used to guide the planning and development of your online teaching curriculum.

    Backward Design

    Backward design is often used in online teaching to design learning experiences and instructional techniques to meet specific learning goals. Backward design begins with identifying the objectives of a unit or course—what students are expected to learn and be able to do—and then working “backwards” to create lessons that achieve those desired goals. In online teaching, the educational goals for a course or unit are often closely aligned with a given institution’s learning standards. These are concisely written descriptions of what learners are expected to understand and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. In the context of online teaching, this includes the expectation that students have mastered certain technology tools and platforms to meet these goals.

    There are many benefits to backward design. Starting with the end goal in mind helps educators design a sequence of assessments, readings, course materials and group activities that are more likely to result in learners achieving the academic goals of a given course or unit—that is, actually learning what they were expected to learn.

    Beginning the planning process with the end goal in mind is often a counterintuitive process. However, backward design gives educators a structure they can follow when creating their curriculum, as well as planning their instructional process. Using a backward design approach also helps educators better align the different elements of their course by methodically integrating learning goals, activities and assessments at every step.

    Managing the Logistics of Online Teaching

    Even though planning for an online class may start in a similar way as an on-campus or face-to-face course, there are several important differences that those teaching online should keep in mind. First, it is important to consider how technology will influence the way you conduct your online teaching. If you would like to use an interactive lecture format, you will need to find ways to engage students in an online environment. Chat channels, discussion forums, blog postings and online office hours are a few ways for online teachers to connect with learners. Those engaging in online teaching will also need to consider how the use of virtual classroom technology will impact student learning. Do your students require specific technical knowledge or computer functionality such as a webcam? How will they interact in the online environment? What will you do to make your online classroom inclusive to all students?

    When transitioning to online teaching, educators also need to address technical issues. It is important to plan all of your components for an online course before the first day of class. Start early and seek collaboration and support from your colleagues, when possible. Many institutions have Centres for Teaching and Learning with experienced instructional designers who are able to help manage the transition for instructors and their students.

    Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Online Teaching

    Synchronous Online Teaching

    Synchronous online teaching occurs in real-time through video conferencing platforms like Zoom, Go-to-Meeting and YouTube Live. When used with an online teaching platform or learning management system, synchronous online teaching allows educators to continue many of the same learning activities found in an in-person classroom. Learners can access lecture slides, respond to interactive questions and engage with discussion threads with their peers.

    Delivering online teaching information and presentations in real-time creates a sense of speed and intimacy that helps increase student engagement. This allows educators to respond directly to student questions and discussions, provide feedback and adjust online teaching to ensure students are comprehending course material.

    To ensure synchronous online teaching is effective, it is important to have the proper technology tools and platforms in place. Ideally, video conferencing solutions should be used for delivering online lecture content, as well as an active learning platform or learning management system to support assessments, readings, live discussions and interactive questions. With large class sizes, having a remote teaching assistant is especially helpful in alerting instructors to any technical or experiential issues that may occur when using technology tools and platforms. Online teaching assistants can also provide support by responding to discussion threads directly or gathering commonly asked questions requiring further review and clarification.

    Similar to a physical classroom, it is important to balance content delivery with interactive learning activities, as well as building in time for review into the lecture schedule. A best practice is for course information to be presented in ten-minute chunks, followed by blocks dedicated for reflection exercises and interactive questions and discussions to keep students engaged.

    In the same way that the answers to in-class discussion questions inform how comprehensively course material is covered, it is important to be able to understand where students are struggling. This includes using low stakes quizzes and discussion questions to ensure students are able to achieve online teaching objectives. Synchronous online teaching provides opportunities to apply concepts and collaborate, helping to deepen learning. Real-time interaction is also particularly useful when it comes to delivering complex concepts that require immediate feedback or clarification to keep students on track.

    Asynchronous Online Teaching

    Asynchronous online teaching uses many of the same technology tools and platforms, with the main difference being student learning is self-paced. With asynchronous online teaching, educators deliver course content and assignments remotely using a combination of solutions like Zoom to record and post lectures online as well as learning management platforms to centralize assignments and other learning resources. Learners interact with digital courseware, assignments and their peers through discussion channels. Asynchronous online teaching is more convenient for students who may have children or other dependents as well as inflexible job hours. As well, not every student can afford or has easy access to the internet. The ability to learn on an individual schedule gives learners the flexibility they need to find time where they can engage with online course material. The benefit of this online teaching method is being able to utilize active learning techniques without the need for participants to be active at the same time.

    Asynchronous online teaching is particularly useful when it is difficult for your students to maintain a specific schedule. Accessing materials, readings, assignments, quizzes and lecture recordings in a single place allows students to engage with course material at their own pace. There are many simple ways to drive engagement even if much of the learning is self-directed, such as using discussion forums, integrating questions into assigned readings to test comprehension and using multimedia elements like video to dimensionalize learning. Asynchronous online teaching also provides the opportunity to promote peer collaboration, creating specific assignments that require students to work with one another or review others’ work outside the confines of a class schedule.

    Asynchronous learning requires online educators to take time to revisit learning objectives for the semester. Identifying whether there are components that can be recorded for students to view on their own schedule versus what information should be delivered live or asynchronously is an integral part of the design process. Giving thought to where students can access readings, lecture materials, assignments and instructions can help develop a more effective learning plan and identify any potential gaps that may exist in course instruction.

    Without the benefit of live interaction, it’s especially important to communicate expectations and reminders and address student questions in a timely fashion. Regular, helpful and empathetic communication is an essential tool for reducing the apathy and sense of isolation many students feel when learning remotely.

    Online Assessments

    When teaching online courses, there are two primary types of assessments: open-book tests and remotely proctored exams. There are a number of benefits to each, but the effectiveness of both is determined by how well they are designed and implemented into online teaching.

    Remote Open-Book Exams

    Online teaching provides the opportunity to look at different options beyond the traditional summative assessment. Open-book exams offer a great deal of flexibility, making it an ideal option for instructors or institutions that rely on asynchronous learning.

    An open-book assessment that is strategically designed provides interesting opportunities to test skills beyond rote memorization, such as problem-solving and critical thinking. Open-book exams are especially effective when they focus on using synthesis, analysis and evaluation to assess what students know, according to the Center for Teaching at Learning at UC Berkeley. The ability to intersperse questions with digital reference materials like images, video and audio clips also allow for more creativity and freedom when constructing an exam in relation to traditional in-class tests.

    Developing interactive digital documents with pictures and videos embedded alongside test questions creates a more dynamic assessment experience for students. Using multimedia and other reference content allows learners to discuss and assess opinions given to them within the assessment or analyze a diagram and its findings. Depending on the learning platform, open-book assessments can also include a variety of different question types, including matching, sorting, fill-in-the-blank, long-form answer and click-on-target (with multiple targets) questions.

    Proctored Tests and Exams

    In many cases, such as courses required for accreditation, open-book assessments are simply not an option. In these instances, there are a number of platforms that offer secure proctored tests and exams. Students can take on their own computers, at a pre-set time and from any location. Advanced ID verification, the ability to secure browser settings and the use of artificial intelligence to monitor students have helped assuage concerns over academic integrity.

    Using a variety of question types—multiple choice, word answer, fill in the blank, matching and long answer—instructors can provide students with an assessment that tests their knowledge as well as their analysis and communication skills. For these types of assessments, student performance can be automatically graded upon submission, making the turnaround time for student feedback much faster than manual grading.

    7 Best Practices in Online Teaching

    1) Bring who you are into the online classroom: One of the key benefits of traditional, face-to-face teaching is being able to share your passion with your students. Many educators use the performative aspect of teaching to their advantage, feeding off the energy in the classroom to deliver their lectures. However, it is easy for unique teaching characteristics—humor, emphasis, body language, facial expressions—to get lost in translation when a student can’t see or hear you. The predominant means of online communication is text, which can quickly become demotivating and uninteresting for students. It is necessary and inevitable that some components of your online course will be delivered through written communications. Assignment instructions, emails to students and weekly course-wide announcements can all be tailored to your unique voice and style:

    • Record yourself: audio or video recordings are a great way to bring your whole self to your students in addition to lecture videos (if you choose to use this functionality). Students need to know you in order to engage in learning online and showing them that you are human with a short video greeting at the beginning of your course is a great way to set the right tone.
    • Express your support: It’s important to infuse your writing with warmth when teaching online classes. As digital natives, Gen Z students are highly adept at sensing the tone of written digital communications. When reminding students about upcoming assignment deadlines, for example, don’t write, “A number of you have not completed the readings necessary for the assignment due later this week. Please note that the assignment is worth 40% of your grade.” Instead, write “Thanks for your hard work so far this semester. Small reminder to complete the specified readings before you start this week’s assignment. Please let me know what questions you have or if you need any help. Thanks all!”

    2) Be present and responsive on your online course site: Your presence is so important in teaching online college courses because it encourages bonding as the class evolves as a group and develops intellectual and personal connections. Thoughtful and consistent daily presence shows the students that the online educator cares about them and their questions and concerns, even if they are a part-time educator and busy with other responsibilities. It also shows that you are generally present for them to do the mentoring, guiding and challenging that online teaching is all about. Schedule a few hours of time each week to be visibly engaged and present in your online class. Here are a few ways to interact with your students:

    • Hold online office hours or virtual ‘coffee chats,’ to get to know your students on a more personal level.
    • Answer questions regularly in your course’s online discussion forum.
    • Post a weekly announcement to recap the previous week’s learnings or introduce the coming week’s content.

    3) Use a variety of large-group, small-group and individual learning experiences: Online teaching works best when a variety of learning experiences and activities are offered. Online courses are more enjoyable and effective when learners are given the opportunity to work through course concepts and assignments with their fellow students. However, some students learn and work most effectively on their own. Incorporating options and opportunities for students to work together and individually is beneficial for accommodating different types of learners. Small groups are particularly effective in online teaching when learners are working on complex case studies or scenarios for the first time. It is also important to have activities that involve the whole class such as discussion boards or events with invited experts for creating a sense of community in an online course.

    4) Ask for informal feedback on your online teaching: Early surveys or informal discussions are effective in getting students to provide feedback on what is working well in an online course. It is also a chance to solicit suggestions and ideas on what might help learners have a better online course experience. This early feedback should be done in week three or four of a semester so time is available to make corrections and modifications while the course is ongoing. A simple e-mail or discussion thread asking a few of these questions works well:

    • What’s working so far?
    • How could your online learning experience be improved?
    • What would you like help with?

    5) Think like a student: Teaching online means that the learning environment loses the built-in sense of community that comes more naturally to a traditional classroom environment. This can lead to feelings of isolation and disengagement and demands a different kind of support than teaching in person.

    Envisioning how your students will experience the class, having never learned this content before, helps prepare for these potential challenges. Did you give straightforward instructions for your extension policy? Have you supplied a detailed breakdown of how assignments will be graded? Are learning objectives and curriculum objectives explicitly tied to online teaching and learning activities? Students should ideally understand exactly what you are teaching online and what is expected of them as a result. Being intentional about course design is essential to ensuring students interact with course content the way that instructors intend. Here are a few ways to create a sense of community in the classroom:

    • Use a discussion board thread to have students share tidbits about their interests inside and outside of the classroom
    • Ask students to post pictures of their pets or what they’ve been watching on television (and be sure to share as well!)
    • Play music at the beginning of each lecture video

    6) Organize your content logically: When teaching online, the design and sequence of content and learning activities must be methodical, intuitive and systematic. Help students move through content and learning activities easily, so that their attention remains focused on learning the material. If they are required to leave a lecture module and use another drop-down menu or folder to watch a required video, that can be distracting—or frustrating if it’s complicated to find. When students use a lot of cognitive resources just trying to figure out where to go to access resources, they have less mental energy left for learning the content itself. This can be a bigger challenge for students who are already unmotivated in the first place. Instead, try to order materials and activities in a sequence that is straightforward and easy to navigate for students.

    7) Ground online teaching in reality: A variety of examples and explanations can help learners grasp course concepts in a way that makes the most sense to them. Examples are perhaps even more crucial in online teaching, since students don’t always have the opportunity to ideate with instructors or peers in the moment to clarify a course concept or missed detail. Online learners benefit from multiple explanations of difficult concepts and being prescriptive when it comes to the kind of work you want to see. Modelling behaviors is a good way to lead by example. For instance, use a friendly yet professional tone when writing discussion posts and assignment instructions. Demonstrate respect for diverse opinions and respect differences in learning. When you show students what you expect, they are likely to be more confident in their ability to make online learning successful. This positively impacts their motivation to engage meaningfully with course concepts, and participate in learning activities.

    Conclusion

    Online teaching can be quite different than teaching in a classroom. Teaching online requires specific competencies and skills associated with effective online course delivery and facilitation. However, it is clear that the ability to teach effectively in online environments is becoming more of a necessity than a nice-to-have in the higher education space. The good news is that there are many resources available as well as tools and platforms to support educators in making this shift. By combining the power of experience with the right technology, instructors can pivot their teaching practices online, increasing flexibility for students and accommodating the diverse needs of today’s learners.

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  • The Benefits of Distant Learning

    The Benefits of Distant Learning

    What is distance learning?

    Distance learning refers to the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school. Historically, this involved correspondence between an individual and an academic institution by mail. Today, it involves learning through online tools and platforms. A distance learning program can take place entirely in online learning environments, or a combination of distance learning and traditional classroom instruction (called blended or hybrid). Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and learning resources, are more recent developments in distance learning. During the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent campus closures, educators and institutions relied heavily on distance learning methods to complete the semester.

    Types of distance learning

    Within the scope of distance education there are two very important concepts: synchronous and asynchronous learning.

    Synchronous learning

    Synchronous learning requires some form of communication during classroom time. It has a less flexible learning plan because the classes are conducted on a set schedule using videoconferencing or live online webinars.

    • Fixed-time online courses are the most common type of distance education. Students sign into their online educational portal to access distance learning resources, including live class video streams. Using this method, students and instructors make use of live chats and discussion boards for communication.
    • Video conferencing takes advantage of tools and platforms, like Zoom, that have expansive capabilities and can be used globally. Video conferencing provides learning opportunities for students by allowing them to see their instructors and peers in real time, creating a sense of community in the virtual classroom.

    Synchronous distance learning most closely mirrors the typical in-class experience. Delivering course content virtually in real time creates a sense of intimacy and timeliness that is particularly effective for increasing student engagement. Depending on supporting technology, such as learning management platforms, educators can also respond directly to questions and discussions, provide feedback and use interactive polling and click-on-target questions to gauge comprehension and ensure students are moving in the right direction. This includes the ability for attending students to access lecture slides, engage with their peers in discussion threads, and answer interactive questions.

    Synchronous learning provides opportunities to apply concepts and collaborate. It’s especially useful when teaching material that requires immediate feedback or clarification to keep students on track. There are important social benefits as well. Given the new normal students and faculty find themselves contending with, the opportunity to connect with peers, work together and see each other can go a long way in alleviating the sense of isolation many may feel when learning in a virtual environment.

    Asynchronous learning

    Asynchronous learning allows the student to work at their own pace, and normally has a very distinct syllabus, with weekly deadlines for homework and other assignments. Students have regular access to their peers and their instructors, although this is typically managed through email and discussion boards.

    • Open schedule online courses give students the greatest amount of freedom. All deadlines are pre-set and students are encouraged to be self-sufficient and complete their assignments on their own timelines. Without dedicated class time, students complete their coursework whenever they choose to allot the time to do so. Final exams normally occur at the end of the semester, and are open for several days to provide students with some flexibility as to when they choose to take it.
    • Hybrid distance education combines synchronous and asynchronous methods of online learning. Students must adhere to specific predetermined deadlines for assignment completion. The majority of the coursework is completed online, but in some cases, the student can physically speak with an instructor in person through live chats or video conferencing. Hybrid distance education may also include attending a physical classroom for certain periods of time. Conversely, it may involve covering specific modules and then returning to distance learning to complete additional modules and assignments.

    Asynchronous learning is particularly beneficial if students with varying levels of Internet access find it difficult to follow a specific schedule. Accessing all course materials, readings and assignments in a single place allows students to explore topics in detail and at their own pace. Discussion forums and one-to-one communications through email are simple ways to create engagement, even if much of the learning is self-directed. Asynchronous learning also provides the opportunity for instructors to promote peer collaboration, creating specific assignments that require students to work with each other or review each other’s work outside the confines of a class schedule.

    Without the benefit of live interaction, it’s especially important for students and instructors alike to communicate—or over-communicate —as the case may be. One of the disadvantages of asynchronous learning is student apathy and isolation. Taking time to set course expectations, provide clear assignment instructions and responding to student emails and discussion thread posts are essential.

    How distance learning impacts students

    There are many advantages to distance education. Online courses provide a more accessible learning experience for students. Accessibility in higher education means all students are provided with an equal opportunity to access course materials. This should be top of mind for educators in planning how to deliver their courses. It is no longer realistic to expect that all students have access to online materials outside of the traditional classroom, and even when they do, it’s important to take time to orient students properly. A Top Hat survey of more than 3,000 students found that 28 percent reported difficulty navigating and using online learning resources and tools. Accessibility goes hand-in-hand with flexibility: letting students choose how and where learning takes place can reduce barriers associated with finding success in higher ed.

    Forming an accessible course starts with giving careful consideration to ensuring all students can benefit from your teaching model.

    In online learning environments, students may feel isolated from their peers and campus communities. Participation has therefore become even more important with the shift to remote education. With in-person learning, instructors can gauge by a show of hands who understood your course material. In an online environment, opportunities for participation, such as discussion questions interspersed throughout lecture presentations, can help bridge the gap. Engagement in the classroom may start with icebreaker activities and diagnostic assessments. From here, instructors should consider introducing more collaborative activities such as case studies and debates to ensure students have ample opportunity to put theory into practice.

    Academic success isn’t the only concern students face. Stable housing facilities and regular access to food, along with physical and mental health resources are also top of mind for today’s college students. This is particularly in the midst of the coronavirus pandemic. Empathetic teaching practices, such as shortening lecture modules to provide students with key takeaways and making those lectures available for students to review on their own, are essential in creating supportive learning communities. Empowering students starts with respecting their individual needs and circumstances. It’s also important to dedicate time to connect with students beyond the actual class schedule. As part of the responsibilities of teaching in an online learning environment, instructors should set aside time to answer students’ questions, provide feedback and connect with them on a more personal level, similar to on a social media site.

    The future of distance learning

    Students were okay with “good enough” online education at the height of the pandemic and subsequent school closures, according to Top Hat’s COVID-19 State of Flux Survey results. But they will be less likely to put up with subpar learning in the coming semester. The good news is that many students see value in the flexibility of virtual learning. In fact, around a third of students would prefer a blended approach, with both in-person and online components. The key to success is improving the online experience and ensuring students see the return on their academic investment.

    It is clear that distance learning is here to stay. The fall semester is approaching and pressure on institutions to be ready to teach effectively is increasing. Regardless of what the situation on college campuses looks like in the fall, it is paramount to ensure students see the value of investing their time and effort in courses that may need to be delivered online.

    Even when institutions reopen their physical doors and life returns to ‘normal,’ the ability to teach online, in-person or some combination of the two will yield important benefits in terms of flexibility, as well as dimensionalizing the learning experience. As educators and students grow more comfortable and more confident with the virtual classroom, so do the opportunities to infuse learning with new experiences and new possibilities.

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  • HR and the Courts — May 2024 – CUPA-HR

    HR and the Courts — May 2024 – CUPA-HR

    by CUPA-HR | May 14, 2024

    Each month, CUPA-HR General Counsel Ira Shepard provides an overview of several labor and employment law cases and regulatory actions with implications for the higher ed workplace. Here’s the latest from Ira.

    Unions Representing Student Employees File Unfair Labor Practice Charges Related to Student Protests

    Nearly 30 unions representing more than 100,000 student workers at 58 campuses throughout the country have issued a joint letter supporting protesting students and condemning violent responses to peaceful protests. Unfair labor practice charges have also been filed with the National Labor Relations Board against a small number of private institutions in protest of schools’ enforcement of their rules.

    The NLRB has found in the past that civil rights protests — for example, those connected to the Black Lives Matter movement — are protected concerted activity when they are tied to protesting employer or employment discrimination matters. However, commentators have drawn a distinction related to the Israel-Hamas war protests. While each unfair labor practice case will rise and fall on the specific facts related to the situation, a university enforcing safety rules and cracking down on protests will likely not violate the National Labor Relations Act. Additionally, if a union member participates in a protest unrelated to their employment and violates university rules, the sanctions involved will likely not violate the NLRA.

    Court of Appeals Affirms Dismissal of ERISA Lawsuit Against Georgetown University

    The U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit unanimously affirmed the dismissal of an employee-filed Employee Retirement Income Security Act lawsuit. The lawsuit claimed that Georgetown University had packed its retirement plans with expensive and badly performing investment options.

    The lawsuit further alleged that Georgetown had offered its faculty and staff retirement plans with too many investment options and retained multiple recordkeepers, which drove up the administrative costs of the plans. A federal district court judge dismissed the amended complaint in April 2023, ruling that the amended complaint did not address the concerns that led to the dismissal of the original complaint.

    The Court of Appeals unanimously concluded that the original complaint failed to plead any adequate claims and the proposed amended complaint was futile as it did not cure the problem (Wilcox et al. v. Georgetown University et al. (Case no. 23-7059, DC Cir. 4/23/24)).

    Student-Athlete NLRB Unionization Decisions May Modify Taxability of Athletic Scholarships

    Although the NLRB’s decision in the Dartmouth College men’s basketball team case is under review, if the board affirms the decision that players are employees and can unionize, it could ultimately cause the IRS to rethink its current position that student-athletes receiving scholarships are not employees for purposes of the tax code. This could possibly include a change in the current position that these scholarships are not taxable as income.

    If the NLRB affirms the regional director’s decision, which many commentators conclude is likely given its composition under the Biden administration, the decision is not binding for the IRS. The IRS has independent authority to conclude whether these student-athletes are employees and are receiving taxable compensation in the form of scholarships under the Internal Revenue Code. Separately, the courts are wrestling with the question of whether student-athletes are employees under the Fair Labor Standards Act and are entitled to minimum wage and overtime. We will keep following these issues as they unfold.

    IRS Giving More Scrutiny to Tax-Exempt Status of Name, Image and Likeness Payments to Student-Athletes From Booster Donations

    Bloomberg reports that the IRS has begun revoking and not granting 501(c)(3) status to some groups formed to collect money from boosters to fund name, image and likeness payments to student-athletes. In testimony before the Senate finance committee, the IRS commissioner stated that they are scrutinizing those NIL groups that are not operating for tax-exempt purposes. These collectives have raised millions of dollars from boosters who generally expect those gifts to be tax deductible. For specific tax guidance, a tax professional should be consulted on questions arising in this area.

    U.S. Supreme Court Rules Job Transfers Can Violate Title VII and Other Anti-Discrimination Statutes

    The Supreme Court ruled unanimously on the issue of whether a plaintiff must prove significant harm to state a claim of discrimination under the applicable anti-discrimination statutes because of a job transfer. The court reversed the holdings of some circuit courts of appeal that “significant harm” must be stated to state a claim of job discrimination resulting from a job transfer.

    Nonetheless, the Supreme Court stopped short of eliminating the harm requirement entirely. The court held that a plaintiff must show that the transfer resulted in some level of injury or harm, concluding that the statute does not require by its terms the high bar of “significant” harm (Muldrow v. St. Louis (U.S. Case No. 22-193, 4/17/24)). The concurring justices, who did not dissent, argued that the change from significant harm to some other lower level of harm was confusing and would lead to further inconsistent litigation.

    NLRB Reports 10% Rise in Case Load in First Half of Fiscal Year 2024

    The NLRB reports that case filings of unfair labor practice charges or union representation votes rose 10% during the first half of fiscal year 2024 compared to the same period in the previous fiscal year. Union election petitions rose by 35% during this period, and unfair labor practice charges rose by 7%. The NLRB has jurisdiction over private institutions of higher education and has no jurisdiction over state-based public institutions. State public institutions are generally subject to state labor boards and state statutes with separate, but often parallel, rules. This uptick in private employer unfair labor practice charges and election petitions will likely be accompanied by an increase in activity by public-sector unions at public institutions of higher education.



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